Fully describe Career Guide and understand through social ideas

1. Social change takes place when there is a structural change in societies

The idea of human society presupposes social order. The interactions among persons and groups in the society are reciprocal and interdependent. When those interactions are repeated and persist in our period of time, there is obviously an order in the social relations, The term social order refers to the existence of restraint, the inhibition of impulse, control of violence in social life and maintenance of peace and tranquility.

Social order also refers to an element of reciprocity and mutuality in social life. Thus, it can be said that there is an element of predictability in social life. Fulfillment of expectations of persons in roles is possible when there is some consistency in their interactions, Social order implies persistence. Meanings of social order are logically and empirically related, therefore, a society is an organisation of the human relationships which constitute social structure.

The ordering of human lives in terms a matrix of social expectations comprises all of the distinctively human qualities of social behaviour. Social order is based on learning i.e. individuals learn to internalise their restraints during the process of enculturation in early childhood. Behaviour of the people in a society is custom - bound and custom is that phenomenon which restrains behaviours. This implies the existence of behavioural rules and norms in a society which holds together persons and groups.

It is obvious that without norms, social relations would be half hazard, chaotic and dangerous. It is the norms which render order and stability to social life. Norms are the basis of social structure. As Durkheim has pointed out a situation of complete normlessness or anomie would be intolerable. No normless society would endure, Thus, norms constitute one source and locus of the order that the society exhibits.

According to Durkheim, that social solidarity of mankind in the past was nearly mechanical one i.e. based on kinship, friendship where division of labour was age and gender - based. There is no much divergence in role-performance excepting those based on age and sex. In the modern world social solidarity is increasingly organic which is based on greater division of labour and differentiation. He showed that division of labour sometimes creates very negation of solidarity. It is because the relations of an organism are not regulated since they are in a state of anomie.

According Robert Merton, conformity represents the adaptation in which both the cultural goals and the normative institutional means are accepted by most people in a given society occupying any position are conformists. He says that because behaviours is typically oriented towards basic values of society that we may speak of the human aggregates as comprising a society.

Mutualism is a mode of adaptation by which the cultural goals are rejected while the institutional norms are accepted. He looks upon such deviation as a private escape from the dangers and frustrations which seem to be inherent in the competition for major cultural goals by abandoning these goals and clinging closely to the safe routines and institutionalised norms. The ritualist slavishly follows the rules not because of over identification with them but from a lack of security in important social relationships in the organisation.

Rebellion is the rejection of the prevailing goals and substituting them with new goals and also the rejection of prevailing norms and substituting in their place new norms. This presupposes alienation from the generally accepted goals and standards and an attempt to bring about a new social structure. The rebelion involves genuine transvaluation where the direct or vicarious experience of frustration leads to full denunciation of previous deprived values. There are two factors, which contribute adaptation by rebellion one is the pressure for achievement coupled with realisation of the existing restriction of opportunity. The other is ambivalent or conflicting norms resulting from an admittance of open class and casteless norms in a society.

Innovation, mutualism, retreatism and rebelion are individual valuations of various aspects of goal norms complex. Merton looks upon them as typical to the society as while though occurring with sufficient frequency in significant number of individuals. This categorization and analysis help to understand the phenomena of anomie as discussed by Durkheim. He further notes that those non-conforming adaptations are not rationally calculated and utilitarian; and on the contrary, since they were out of pressure and frustration, a degree of irrationality might be expected.

The terms, namely social order, social stability and persistence are in vogue in the study of social change. It is true that the opposite of social order and social stability is social disorder and social in stability. Therefore, all societies are, at the outset, again innovation and rebellion because they envisage such movements which may lead to social disorder and social instability and the society may face the consequence of normlessness and violence associated with them.

Social change takes place when there is a structural change in societies. With technological and institutional innovations there are changes in economy and aspiration of people. When cultural changes and changes in social norms take place in response to new situations, social change may take place smoothly.

Talcott Parsons has said that social systems have to be conceived as open systems engaged in complicated processes of interchanges with the environing systems. Parsons conceptualize social system as dynamic. In other words, dynamism is inherent in social system. He says that internally the social system has to be conceived as differentiated and segmented with a plurality of subsistence, each of which must be treated analytically as an open system interchanging with the environing subsistence within the larger system.

Thus, there is a 'strain' within the system. If the strain becomes too intense, the mechanisms of control and restraint will not be able to ensure conformity, as a result there may be the break-down of the structure. He defines structural change as alteration in the normative culture defining the expectation governing that relation. As regards the problem of identity of the changing social systems he asserts that the crucial forms of the problem of change lies in the stability of value system. A change in structure of a social system is a change in its normative culture. The most important factors favoring structural change are adequate mechanism to overcome institutionalised structural patterns.

2. Factors Responsible for Gradual Disappearance of the Joint Family System.

A few important factors responsible for the disintegration of the joint family system are

i)                    Development of industries and mechanization of agriculture Due to mechanization only a few people are required to work in the fields. As a result, people take jobs in industries and factories in distant places, lead­ing to the disintegration of joint families.

ii)                   Developed means of transport and communication People can easily mi­grate from villages to towns in search of occupation. If at all they live in the same village, they follow a different trade from that of the family and establish a new home.

iii)                 Decline of village trade and handicrafts this has forced the village crafts­men to close down and the workers have been compelled to move towards the towns and cities.

iv)                  Westernization People like the western lifestyle of living independently.

v)                  Social awareness among women Spread of education has increased the social awareness among women. Women have become conscious of their rights and have started asserting their viewpoints. No longer do they want to be subordinated and relegated to a secondary role. This feeling too disintegrated the joint family.

vi)                 The ills of the joint family system the non-congenial atmosphere, denial of privacy, litigation and quarrels all led to the breakdown of the joint family system.

3. Why man is considered as social animal?

The Greek philosopher Aristotle said that "Man is a social animal". He also asserted that he who does not need a society or is above society is either a beast or a god.

Man cannot live all alone, in isolation. It is a social fact that we live with others, or have to live with others. Man's development-biological, social, intellectual and moral-depends on the help he seeks from others, and that is precisely what makes man a social animal. Numerous factors are responsible for our living in society. Some of them are:

(a)    Human nature Man cannot lead a solitary life. Even if he is forced to live, it proves to be the greatest punishment for him.

(b)   Human instincts they only find expression in a society. They are demon­strated only in a group. Love, anger, sympathy, hatred and the like are our instincts which require association or presence of others.

(c)    For the satisfaction of his basic needs, man has to live in a group. Basic requirements of food, clothing and shelter are fulfilled with mutual co­operation and help. A solitary person cannot satisfy his needs.

(d)   For reasons of security, preservation and protection, human beings live together. Man requires security from animals, robbers, bad weather and natural calamities.

(e)    Our moral development largely depends on others. We learn moral quali­ties only in company of other individuals. The desire to help, share and cooperate can only be instilled in a group.

(f)     For the growth of civilization and culture, it is essential that human beings constantly live together.

4.  Short note on join family system. What are essential characteristics of family?

It is an extended family system consisting of a group of people (i.e., grandparents, children, uncles, aunts, cousins, etc.) generally living under a single roof, wor­shipping a common deity and holding common property. The two advantages of a joint family system are:

(a)    Conservation of economic resources Joint family system secures economy of expenditure, since things are purchased at wholesale prices. Also, duplication of household articles and commodities is not there.

(b)   Fosters social virtues in children Virtues like sacrifice, affection, coop­eration, spirit of social service and sharing responsibilities are cultivated amongst children because they live in a group. Also, elders can check the undesirable and anti-social tendencies of the young children.

Essential characteristics of family

The characteristics of the family may be considered from the general point of view and specific point of view, From the general point of view the characteristics of the family are as follows :-

1) A mating relationship:

A mating relationship is the precondition to establish the family, without it family cannot be formed. The mating relationship or marital relationship may be permanent or temporary, it is immaterial but family cannot be thought of without it.

2) A form of marriage:

Marriage is the base of family. Marriage may be monogamous or polygamous or polyandrous and in any form. It is the social institution which helps to establish mating relationship and thereby family is formed.

3) A system of nomenclature and reckoning descent:

Each family is identified by a distinct nomenclature of its own. The members of the family are known by the nomenclature or by a distinctive name. The system of nomenclature involves a mode of reckoning descent. In different societies the descent is traced differently. In matrilineal society it is traced from mother and in patrilineal society it is from father. In some societies it may be traced from both father and mother.

4) An Economic Provision:

Every family has an economic provision to satisfy the economic needs of its members. All the members of the family more or less share with each other. Usually, it is the look out of the head of the family who tries to make all possible arrangement to provide economic comfort to his family members.

5) A common habitation:

Each family has a common home in which all the members can live together. A living or dwelling place is necessary to bear child and care child. Otherwise, child bearing and child rearing cannot be adequately performed in its absence.

Besides the general characteristics, a family possesses the following distinctive features which distinguish it from all other groups or association.

6) Universality:

Family is the most universal of all the groups, associations and institutions in the human society. It has existed in every society ancient, medieval and modern and is found in all parts of the world. Even the animal society is not free from it. In this connection, MacIver has rightly pointed out that, "It is found in all societies, at all stages of social development, and exists far below the human level among a myriad species of animals. Almost every human being is or has been a member of some family".

7) Emotional basis:

Family is based on emotional ties. All the members of the family are emotionally interwoven with one another. The emotions and sentiments of love, affection, sympathy, co­operation, friendship etc. find their expressions in the family particularly in mating, procreation and parental care.

8) Formative influence:

Each family has distinctive customs, traditions, mores, norms and culture. This family culture has a great influence on its members. All the members of the family are bound to observe the family rules and regulations. Family also teaches the social qualities like obedience, tolerance, sympathy, love, affection, and sacrifice. Above all, the family socializes the child, which helps in the development of human personality. Thus, family exercises most profound influence on its members.

9) Limited size:

Family is a primary group; as such its size is quite limited. Generally, family includes only those persons who are born in it and are closely related by blood relationship and adoption. In this way it includes father, mother and their children, so its size is small. Although there are groups smaller than family, but they are not so because of the biological conditions. Hence, biological conditions demand that the family should be limited in size.

10) Nuclear Position:

Family occupies a nuclear position in the social organisation. Different parts of the social organisation find its origin from the family. It is the center of all human activities. The social structure is built around it.

11) Responsibilities of the members:

In the family each members has unlimited responsibility. In other words, they have a deep sense of obligation to the family as a whole. They share the pleasure and pain, burdens and difficulties together and discharge their duties and responsibilities with a united spirit. MacIver has rightly pointed out that, 'In times of crisis men may work and fight and die for the country, but they toil for their families all their lives". In fact the members of a family have unlimited responsibilities and they make sacrifices for their families throughout their lives.

12) Social regulations:

Every family has its own customs, traditions rules and regulations. As an important agent of socialization the family teaches the norms and family culture to its members. The members are socialized in such a manner that they never dare to violate the family rules and regulations. That is why it is said that it is easy to establish a family but it is difficult to break or dissolve it.

13) Permanent and Temporary in Nature:

Family is both an institution and an association. As an institution family is permanent. In the family after marriage some members say son or daughter may leave the family of origin, with this the family never totally dissolves rather it continues to exist in some form or other as an institution On the other hand, as an association it is temporary. It is because family is the most changeable of all important organisaions. The family undergoes variations in its structures and functions from time to time.

5. Brief note on scientific nature of Rural Sociology

Nature of Rural Sociology is concerned with the scientific status of the discipline. In other words, we have to discuss whether Rural Sociology is a science or not. This sort of inquiry of truth is based on certain fundamental assumptions which are often called as essential elements of science. These are as follows:-

1) Objectivity:-

Anybody of knowledge, to be regarded as science must have objectivity. When any particular investigation is carried out without being influenced by the researcher’s personal feelings, bias or attitude, that investigation becomes objective. This objectivity helps different researchers to reach at the same conclusion. So the primary duty of a researcher to reach at the same conclusion.

So the primary duty of a researcher is to strive at self eliminatory in his judgments and provide an argument which is true for each individual mind as his own. This is attended under two conditions. The repeated investigation of one phenomenon by the same observer yield constant data; And the repeated observation of constant phenomena by different observers yield constant data.

2) Generality:

The scientific theories or laws always try to discover under the surface level of diversity the thread of uniformity. Science is not interested in individual objects or individual groups of objects as such. Its primary aim is to trace order in nature, to this end; science seeks to as certain the common characteristics of types of objects and general laws or conditions of events. The conclusions arrived at a scientific method have general applicability.

3) Verifiability:

The scientific findings are based on the empirical evidence. The speculation and imaginations have no place in science. The scientist believes that the rule source of knowledge is experience (i.e. data of senses) and that there are no universal and necessary truths from which valid existential inferences can be drawn. This sort of reliance on reality makes the scientific generalizations verifiable. Any knowledge or information which cannot be verified or tested cannot be science they can at best be belief or philosophies.

4) Rationality:

Science is not only based on empirical evidences, but also on rational arguments only the help of data collected from reality will yield no knowledge. They should be properly organized and rational thinking be applied to arrive at general truth.

The scientist does not accept uncritically whatever sense datum offers itself before him. To this sense-datum, he applies the screws of reason so as to comprehend its true character. In other words the man of science regards rational ideas as the guiding principle on making prediction that are then to be tested by observation.

5) Predictability:

By logical reasoning and inferences science establishes the cause and effect relationship among different phenomena. It also believes on the principles of law of uniformity of nature. Which states that the nature will before similarly under similar conditions? Given the similar situation the same cause must produce the same effect. On the basis of these two principles i.e. (law of concession and law of uniformity of nature). Since predicts about future state of things with certain degree of accuracy.

6) System:

Science deals with empirical truths. But the most important thing is that while analyzing the true nature of these empirical objects, it follows a formal or rigorous method. This systematic method of analysis and generalization enables the scientists to variety the findings again and again in different occasions. Generally two prevalent methods are found in realm of science i.e. deductive and inductive. In deductive methods the conclusion is drawn from a set of self-evident propositions.

Without questioning the truth of the propositions themselves. On the other hand in inductive method, the particular truths in empirical situation are gathered continually and gradually till the most general truth is established. Thus deduction proceeds from general to particular were as induction proceeds from particular to general often a scientist is confused as to which method is scientific.

A valid scientific generation combines the both. It borrows the element of formal truth from deduction and material truth from induction and established its own truth by application of logical reasoning.

It is difficult to establish any uniform law applicable to all the individuals and societies in variably.

6. What are demerits of caste system.

Before defining demerits, it is essential to discus caste system in the first instance:

Actually, Caste is derived from a Portuguese word ‘caste which means breed, race or class. The Portuguese's used this word first to identify small social groups in Hindu Society. In India the word ‘caste’ corresponds with ‘jat’ or Jati’ which means ‘Birth”.

On the other hand, the word ‘jati’ has been derived from the Sanskrit root ‘Jana’ which means ‘to take birth’. Therefore, caste refers to a particular group of people, the social membership of which is based upon birth and they create division of labor by their hereditary occupation.

Definition of caste:

Caste is defined in a number of ways. Some of the important definitions are given below.

Herbert Rishley defines “Caste as a collection of families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine, professing to follow the same hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogenous community.

According to Ketkar, “a caste is social group having two characteristics: i) Membership is confined to those who are born of the members and includes all persons so born ii) the members are forbidden by an inexorable social law not marry outside the group.

C.H.Cooley, says, “When a class is strictly hereditary, we may call it a caste.

Caste System discharges many dysfunctions. These are known as demerits of disadvantages of Caste system. These are discussed below.

1) Denies of Mobility of Labor:

Caste System opposes mobility of labor. The individual under Caste System cannot accept any occupation according to his sweet will. But the individual is bound to follow, the occupation determined by Caste System. As a result, many people carry the burden of unsuccessfulness and pass life unhappily being incapable of accomplishing the determined occupation. Therefore, idleness takes place among individuals.

2) Untouchability:

Caste System has created an ugly social evil which is known as untouchability. Due to the caste stratification the members of untouchable caste remain, in the lower place of social hierarchy and are oppressed and depressed. Indian Mahatma Gandhi, says “untouchability is the hatefulness expression of Caste System and it is a crime against God and Man. The untouchables remaining under the grips of Caste System are deprived of all social, religious, economic, cultural and political rights and privileges.

3) Retards Social Solidarity:

Another dysfunction of Caste System is that it retards social solidarity. He imposes certain restrictions on food, drink, intercourse, occupation and selection of mates and thereby spoils social unity, integrity and feelings of brotherliness. There are senses like hatred, jealousy, envy and so on existing between higher and lower castes. As a result, the Hindu Society is disintegrated.

4) Obstacle to social unity:

Caste System creates obstacles to the unity of the country. The lower caste people in the society cannot express their dissatisfaction as they are deprived of all privileges of the society. As a result of this social unity is disintegrated. According to Prof. G.S. Ghurye, Caste System creates an unhealthy atmosphere for the growth of national unit E. Schmidt opines that one of the tragic results of Caste System is that it opposes national consciousness.

5) Obstacle to social progress:

Another demerit of Caste System is that creates obstacles in the path of social and economic growth to the country. The members of the caste gradually become conservative because they believe on the theory of karma. As a result of conservatism, they neither give up old customs and traditions nor accept easily any new ideals, values and scientific inventions. Therefore, impediments are created in social progress.

6) Oppose to Democracy:

Caste System opposes democracy, liberty, equality and fraternity which are the fundamental themes of a successful democracy. Democracy ensures equal right to all irrespective of caste, religion and color. But Caste System does not give equal rights to all members in the society. In caste ridden society the rights of the members are determined on the basis of social stratification. For example, while the members of higher caste enjoy all kinds of privileges, the lower caste people are oppressed. As a result the fundamental principle of democracy is spoiled.

7) Hindrance to the Development of personality:

Caste System hinders the developments of human personality. It is because individuals follow the occupation, which is determined by the Caste System compulsorily. The individual cannot accept any occupation according to his choice. But Caste System does not determine occupation on the basis of efficiency of the individual. For example, though a Shudra possesses required ability and efficiency for fighting he cannot take part in war with the Kshatriyas. As a result many talented persons cannot develop their personality living under the shadow of caste system.

8) Social Inequality:

Social inequality is a vital demerit of caste system. As a result of social stratification, every caste differs from each other and thereby creates social inequality in the society. Therefore, a sense of superiorities and inferiority is created in social, economic, religious and political spheres. The distribution of various essential commodities is also on the basis of superiority and inferiority in the society.

The members of the higher caste gradually become rich enjoying all kinds of privileges where as the lower caste people become poor being deprived of all privileges. As a result, Caste System creates a backward class who depends upon the people of rich community and led a life almost similar to domestic animals.

9) Bad conditions of Women:

Caste System is an obstacle to the freedom of woman in a male-dominated society. The condition of women is very miserable under this system. It is because Caste System deprives women of their educational right. The women lead an agonizing life living in between the four walls of conservatism. Caste System encourages child marriage and prohibits widow remarriage. There by, it sends them to the hell of suffering.

10) Social Problems:

Lastly, caste system creates many social problems and disintegrates the society. These problems and child marriage, custom of dowry, casteism, poverty, suicide, family disorganization and so on. These problems cannot be removed from India, unless Caste System is abolished.

most features of caste

Under Caste System society is divided into several small social groups called castes. Each of these castes is a well developed social group, the membership which is based on birth.

According to Prof. Ghurye, the following are the main characteristics of caste.

1) Segmental division of society:

Under Caste System society is divided into several small social groups called castes. Each of these castes is a well developed social group, the membership which is based on birth. Since membership is based on birth, mobility from one caste to another is impossible. Each caste has its own traditional social status, occupations, customs rules and regulations.

2) Hierarchy:

According to Prof Ghurye each of the linguistics areas, there are about 200 castes which can be graded and arranged into a hierarchy on the basis of their social precedence. At the top of this hierarchy is the touchable caste.

3) Restriction of commensurability and social intercourse:

Every caste imposes restrictions on its members with regard to food drink and social inter-course. The general rule is that the member of caste should accept ‘Kachcha food’ the food in the preparation of which waster is added only from either their own caste of caste ritually higher that their own. They are also required to observe certain restrictions while accepting water from members of other castes.

4) Differential civil and religious privileges and disabilities:

In a caste society, there is an un-equal distribution of privileges and disabilities among its members. While the higher caste people enjoy all the privilege, the lower caste people suffer from all kinds of disabilities.

5) Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation:

Choice of occupation is not free under Caste System. Each caste or a group of allied castes is traditionally associated with a particular occupation. Occupations are hereditary and the members of a caste are expected to follow their traditional occupation without fail.

6) Restriction of marriage:

Castes are divided into sub-castes and each sub-caste is an endogamous group. Endogamy, according to some thinkers is the essence of Caste System. Every caste or sub-caste insists that its members should marry within the group.

7.  What are advantages and disadvantages of Joint Family ?

Disadvantages

Joint Family has its disadvantages. The main defects of joint family are as follows:

1) Home for Idler:

Joint family rests on collective responsibility. This sometimes accounts for laziness among some members. No doubt the active members do hard work. But when they get equal share in the food cooked at the common hearth, some members may become lazy and may not feel the necessity of doing any productive work. They spend their time in eating, sleeping and begetting children.

2) Hindrance in the development of personality:

Joint family hinders the development of personality. Under the joint family system the head of the family or Karta is all in all. He is the sole authority to take any decision in family affairs. Other members, especially the juniors do not get a chance to think independently to take any independent decision. Thus development of personality is arrested.

3) Favors uncontrolled reproduction:

Joint family is said to be associated with higher birth rate. Member does not feel the need of birth control because the children rest on the family as a whole.

4) Hot bed of quarrel:

Joint family is the hotbed of quarrels and bickering. Quarrels are common among the female members of the family. Quarrels between the wives of brother, mother-in-law and daughter-in-law is very common.

5) Source of litigation:

Sometimes joint-family system encourages, litigation. At the time of the partition of movable or immovable property in the family dispute assumes serious proportion and most of the time these are not settled without the interference of the court of law.

6) Loss of privacy:

Over crowdedness in joint family kills one’s privacy. The newly married man and his wife hardly get the time to meet and talk rarely in joint family.

7) Low position of women:

Under the joint family system the woman is relegated to low status. Her condition in the family is worse. Particularly the condition of a daughter-in-law is very miserable. She is often ill-treated by her mother-in-law. Her life is no way better than that of a slave. In many cases, the ill treatment by the elderly women becomes so unbearable that they seek a permanent relief in committing suicide.

Advantages

Following is the merits or advantages joint family.

1) Cradle of social virtues:

Joint family is like a nursery to teach social virtues. It helps to develop social virtues like co-operation, sympathy, sacrifice, affection, spirit of selfless service, obedience and broadminded.

2) Insurance against olds:

Joint Family Acts as insurance for the members of the family at the time of crisis. It provides social security to its members especially to the old, the infirm, the unemployed persons, the orphans, the widowed daughters and sisters as well as the physical and mentally handicapped among them. For all such persons the joint family acts as an insurance company.

3) Division of labor:

In a joint family each member is given work according to his or her capacity. The men, women and children all have to work. For example, in a peasant joint family all the members work actively according to their ability. The old persons and children of the family watch the crops in the field. During the harvest season, the women in some families help in harvesting. This there is no need of procuring labor from outside the family.

4) Socialism in Wealth:

According to Sir Henry Maine joint family is like a co-operative society with the father as the trustee. Every member in the joint family works conforming to the well established socialist formula; each works according to his or her ability and gets according to his or her needs.

5) Avoids fragmentation of land:

Joint family avoids the evils or fragmentation of land by holding the property in common. Joint family is almost like a joint-stock company.

6) An agency of social control:

Another advantage of joint family is that it acts as an agency of social control. In joint family there is a close supervision over the anti-social and unsocial activities of the young member.

7) Opportunity for leisure:

Joint family affords ample leisure to its members. Both the male and female members divide the household works and finish it in a short time spending the rest of the day in leisure. They never feel over burdened.

8) Money saving device:

Joint family is advantageous from the economic viewpoint. This system helps in securing economy in expenditure. Since things are consumed in a large quantity they can be obtained at cheap rate. A large family can be maintained within a small means if it lives jointly.

8. What do you mean by joint family

Joint Family is recognized as a social institution from time immemorial. It is a large social group in which the father, mother, their mature and immature children, their brother and parents live together. In general, a family is called a joint family where the members in a house, taking food in a common cookery enjoy undivided landed property, participate in a common worship and united in blood relationship.

The senior member of the family is known as Karta. Joint Family is mostly helpful in developing good qualities of the individual. C.H. Cooley, the famous American sociologist, describes joint family as the primary social institution of Indian Social System. K.M. Panikar opines that joint family is the backbone of Hindu Society. Joint Family, therefore, is an indispensable part of Indian Social Organisation. It is a classical and unique form of family in India.

Definition of Joint Family: Following are the importance definitions of joint family.

According to Iravati Karve, “Joint Family is a group of people who generally live under one roof, who eat food cooked at one hearth, who held property in common and who participate in common family worship and are related to each other as some type of kindred”.

According to K.M.Kapadia, “Joint Family is a group formed not only of a couple and their children, but also other relations either from father’s side of from mother’s side depending on whether the joint family is patrilineal or matrilineal.”

According to E.A.Rose, traditional joint family was a kind of entity of those related to each other as some type of kindred. Co-residence, common property and commensality, co-worship as well as the observance of certain rights and obligations are some of the essential features of the joint family”.

9. What are principles of cooperation?

The ideals or principles of co operation have developed over a number of years. They have been the result of practical experience and success as against other system of reforms like syndicalism, communism etc. Whose theories were first formulated by master minds before put up into practice and adopted. These principles are as follows.

1) A voluntary Association:

In the first place it is purely a voluntary association. Admission to a co operative society is purely voluntary. Any person who feels the need of joining a co operative society and enjoying its benefits becomes its member whenever he like. On the other hand, he may also quite membership on his own accord.

2) Democratic spirit:

The co operative Society is managed by the members themselves either directly or through their own elected representatives. Decisions are take in a meeting in which every member has the right to express himself.

3) Equality:

The co-operative Society is guided by the principle of equality. Every member has one vote irrespective of his of her share in the business of the society.

4) Self help:

The basis of co-operation is self-help. It is based on the recognition that man develop only through his own efforts. Therefore he must stand on this own leg. It accepts outside help only as an aid to his own efforts.

5) Justice for all:

While co-operation stands for the benefits of its members, it believes in justice to all. It does not believe in exploitation or benefits at the cost of others. It aims to ensure every one his due.

6) Service above profit:

The Primary Aim of co-operation is to give service to its members. It aims at profit any to the extent that is necessary as a business organisation. Any extra profit is redistributed to its members in the form of dividend, bonus and rebate.

7) To meet the economic Requirement of its members:

A co-operative Society is a business institution with objective of meeting the economic requirements of its members. It, therefore works on business principles. It is thus neither a charitable organisation nor a mere service institution.

8) To obtain the Material Advantage:

Elucidating the principles of co-operation the Maclagon committee has observed that the principles of co-operation in short is that a single and powerless persons with the help of the other persons, may reap those material advantages that are available to the rich and powerful persons. Unity, Economic Development, Equity, Freedom, Sympathy, Service, Economy and Reliance are the main principles of co-operating.

10. What do you mean by competition and what are different forms of competition found in social life ? 

Competition is a dissociate process of Social interaction. It is the most fundamental form of social struggle. It is based on non-cooperation. It is a natural result of the universal struggle for existence. It is a struggle between two or more individuals or groups to get some mutually desired objects. Competition is a contest among the persons or groups to obtain some things which are insufficient in quantity and not easily available to meet the demands of every one. It is caused by things which are in short supply. Ogburn and Nimkoff say that competition occurs when demand out turns supply.

There is no competition for sunshine and air which are unlimited. But, competition occurs only for those things which are not easily available and people cannot get according to their own desire. In our society, competition takes place for getting job. Similarly, Political parties compete for acquiring power; students compete each other for obtaining highest mark in examination. In this way; people compete for power, social position, money, luxury, status, popularity and all other things which are not easily available. The aim of competition is not to banish or destroy the opponent. It is not coercion. The competitors observe rules of competition which eliminates force and fraud. When these rules are broken it becomes conflict.

Definitions:

Park and Burgess: "Competition is an interaction without social contact".

E. S. Bogardus: "Competition is a contest to obtain something which does not exist in a quantity sufficient to meet the demand".

Biesanz and Biesanz: "Competition is the striving between two or more persons for the same goal which is limited so that all cannot share it".

Suther land, Woodward and Maxwell: "Competition is an impersonal, unconscious, continuous struggle between individuals or groups for satisfaction which, because of their limited supply, all may not have".

Different forms of competition :

Competition can be divided into many categories. They are discussed below:

1. Social Competition:

People always compete to achieve higher status and position. This kind of competition i am known as social competition which is mostly observed in open societies.

2. Economic Competition:

This type of competition is found in the process of production, consumption and distribution of goods. People always struggle for higher standard of living. Economic competition can be observed at the individual as well as group level. This type of competition is on the i increase in modern times.

3. Political Competition:

Political competition takes place in the political field. Such type of competition is very much pronounced in the modern world. Political parties are always engaged in competition to I capture power. Even, on the international level there is keen competition between nations.

4. Cultural Competition:

Cultural competition takes place between two or more cultural groups. It occurs when one cultural groups tries to establish supremacy over the other. This kind of competition depends upon cultural differences. Competition between the Aryans and the Dravidians, the Indians and the British can be cited as examples.

5. Racial competition:

Racial competition is found among the different races of the world. These races try to establish their supremacy over the others. Owing to this reason, the entire human society is I based on racial divisions. The competition between the white and Black in South Africa provides a very bright example of racial competition.

11. What do you mean by term “Accommodation” ? What are characteristics of accommodation. What are methods and forms of accommodation ?

After conflict comes to an end, the conflicting parties reach an agreement and understanding which gives rise to a social process called “Accommodation". It is essentially a process of temporary adjustment. The question of accommodation arises because people are certain that a conflict cannot continue for an indefinite period and if they will involve in the conflict they cannot lead their life happily and peacefully. Therefore, they find the means to reconcile the conflicting situation in spite of their differences. That is the reason for which Sumner termed accommodation as 'antagonistic co-operation".

The term Accommodation as an associative social process is synonymous to 'adjustment' or 'adaptation'. Generally adjustment may be physical or social. Physical adjustment takes place through organic or structural modification transmitted by heredity. Similarly, social adjustment takes place through the acquisition of behavior patterns transmitted socially. On the other hand, adaptation is a biological process by which animals lower than men adjust with the physical environment. Thus, adjustment to physical environment is termed as adaptation and adjustment to social environment by social animal is termed as 'accommodation'. Likewise adaptation is a biological process and accommodation is asocial process.

Definitions:

Sociologists define accommodation as follows:

Ougburn'and Nimkoff, "Accommodation is a term used by sociologists to describe the adjustment of hostile individuals or groups".

Park and Burgess, "Accommodation is a process by which individuals and groups establish harmony in the social circumstances that come up as a result of competition and conflict".

Gillin and Gilin, "Accommodation is the process by which competing and conflicting individuals and groups adjust their relationship to each other in order to overcome the difficulties which arise in competition, Contravention or conflict".

Characteristics:

The following characteristics of accommodation can be pointed out:

1) Accommodation is the end result of conflict.

2) It may be a conscious or an unconscious activity or process.

3) It is a universal activity.

4) It is a continues process.

5) It is a mixture of love and hate.

6) It is a changing process.

7) It is a selfish process.

8) It is an associative social process.

Methods and forms of accommodation

Accommodation is a social adaptation. It takes place in various adaptations. It takes place in various ways. According to Young and Mark there are five methods of accommodation. They are:-

(1) Pressure (2) Compromise (3) Mediation (4) Consensus and (5) Tolerance. Gillin and Gillin have mentioned seven methods of accommodation. They are:

(1) Yielding to coercion (2) Compromise, (3) Arbitration and conciliation (4) Toleration (5) Conversion (6) Sublimation and (7) Rationalization. Considering the views of the above sociologists we discussed some of the method of accommodation as follows:-

1. Coercion or pressure:

Coercion means the use of force. Coercion or pressure presupposes the existence of parties of unequal strength and powerful and the other weak. In this method of accommodation the weaker of the two conflicting parties submits to the stronger one out of fear. For example, the vanquished accepts the decision or will of the victor. In the wars, the victorious country imposes its will on the vanquished.

2. Compromise:

When the conflicting parties are of equal strength or power want to replace quarrel through accommodation that method of accommodation is known as 'compromise'. This process is based on the principle of give and take. The parties involved scarifies voluntarily for each other because they realize that the continuation conflict would cause loss of their energy and resources. That is why, compromise is a conscious effort. Management-labor agreement on wages, hours of work, promotion etc., involves accommodation of this kind. This method is similar to consensus.

3. Tolerance:

The method of accommodation in which there is no settlement of difference but there is only the avoidance of overt conflict is known as 'tolerance'. In this method, each group bears with each other. It is based on the principle of 'Live and let live'. It is a form of accommodation without any formal agreement. Here no concession is made by any of the parties and there is no change in basic policy. It is the best method of accommodation. The existence of Hindus, Muslims and Christians in India is the bright instance of tolerance.

4. Conversion:

This process takes place when one of the contending parties tries to convert his appoints to his viewpoint by proving that he is right and they are wrong. Generally, the term conversion is used in the religious context to refer to conversion into some other religion. But, is may also occur in political, economic and other fields.

5. Sublimation:

This method involves the substitution of non-aggressive attitudes and activities for aggressive ones. To conquer violence and hatred by love and compassion is the example of sublimation.

6. Rationalization:

The justification for action or conduct based on imaginary premises is called rationalization. It is that method of accommodation in which the contending parties tries to justify their action or conduct on purely imaginary grounds. Thus, rationalization involves plausible excuses or explanations for one's behavior instead of acknowledging one's own fault. For example, a student who fails in the examination for his own negligence blames the teacher or the examination system or the valuation system.

7. Accommodation through third party:

When the contending parties are of equal strength and are not able to resolve their conflict or differences, they may have compromise with the help of a third party. With the attempts of the third party accommodation is achieved by means of arbitration, mediation and conciliation.

a) Arbitration:

When the decision of the third party is binding on both the parties the method of accommodation is known as arbitration.

b) Mediation:

It is the technique of bringing conflicting individuals together and creating in them the willingness to consider the possible settlement of their differences. In other words, in this method of accommodation, the mediator has no power to settle the conflict as his decisions are not binding on the parties. He simply acts as an advisory agent. The acceptance of the advice or suggestions is up to the contending parties.

c) Conciliation:

It is closely related to compromise. In this method of accommodation an attempt is made by the third party to persuade the conflicting parties to develop friendship. Thus, in case of the conciliation the conciliator offers only suggestions in order to terminate a conflict.

Generally the labour- management disputes, political disputes, family disputes etc. are resolved through the intervention of a third party.

12.  What do you mean by social process?

Human being by nature and necessity a social animal. As a social animal he meets with other human beings, interacts with them and establishes social relationship. Thus, when individuals and groups meet and establish social relationships they interact with each other. Such interaction is known as social interaction. Dawson and Getly say that "Social interaction is the process whereby I inter-penetrate the minds of each other. This interaction can take place between two or more individuals or groups. Interaction occurs in the form of social processes. The social processes are the fundamental in which people interact and establish social relationships. Definitions:

Gillin and Gillin: "By social process we mean those ways of interacting which we can observe when individuals and groups meet and establish system of relationships or what happens when changes disturb already existing modes of life."

Ginsberg: "Social processes mean the various modes of interaction between individuals or groups including co-operation and conflict, social differentiation and integration, development, arrest and decay".

Horton and Hunt: "The term Social process refers to the repetitive form of behavior which is commonly found in social Life".

Thus, Social Process consists of sequence of events, repetition of events, relationships between the events, continuity of events and special result.

There is lack of unanimity among the Sociologists regarding the types or forms of social processes. In 1905, Ross had listed thirty eight Social Process. Gillin divided social processes into six categories. Park and Burgess reduced the list to four fundamental types. However, social processes can broadly be categories into two types i.e. Associative and Dissociative. The German Sociologist George Simmel was the first thinker for the first discussed theoretically the associative and dissociative processes. Associative processes always work for the integration and benefit of society. Therefore, they are called as integrative social processes; these social processes bring progress and stability in the society. Co­operation, accommodation, assimilation etc. are the examples of associative social processes.

Dissociative social processes are just apposite of associative social processes. These social processes always work for the disintegration of society and hinder the progress and development of society. These types of social processes are also known as disintegrative social processes. Competition and conflict are the examples of dissociative social processes.

13.  What do you mean by secondary group?

Secondary groups may be defined as those associations which are characterized by impersonal or secondary relations. In every respect, they are opposite of primary groups. The relations among the members of the Secondary groups are indirect, short, temporary, casual and impersonal. Sometimes they are called "Special Interest Groups". They do not necessarily depend on face-to-face contact. The examples of secondary groups include a nation, a factory, a political party, a trade union, a corporation, etc. These groups are born and developed in the industrial society. They are the representatives of a cold world. In fact, the warmth of the relations in primary groups cannot be found in the indirect relations in secondary groups. The relations in the secondary group are formal. This type of cold behavior can be seen among the members of an office. The secondary groups are controlled by formal rules. Here, the members are too many and too scattered to conduct their business through face-to-face relationship.

Ogburn:

“The groups which provide experience lacking in intimacy are called secondary groups”.

H.T.Mazumdar:

When face-to-face contacts are not present in the relations of members, we have secondary group:

Kingsley Davis:

"Secondary groups can be roughly defined as the opposite of everything already said about primary groups".

14. What is importance of primary group ? difference between primary and secondary group.

Before discussing importance of primary group is necessary to understand who coined the term primary group. The concept of primary group was first introduced by Charles Horten Cooley in his book 'Social Organisation'. The primary group is the most universal group found in all the societies. It is a small group in which a few persons come into direct contact with each other. It is characterized by intimate, face-to-face relations. The people meet "face-to-face" for mutual help, friendship and discussion of common problems.

The primary group is the nucleus of all social organizations. It is the nursery of human nature and from it originates the human virtues of love, sympathy, co-operation, justice and fairly -play. It gives "creative expression to our social impulses".

Cooley writes- "By Primary groups I mean those characterized by intimate face-to-face association and co-operation". They are primary in several senses, but chiefly in that they are fundamental in forming the social nature and ideas of the individuals. The result of intimate association is a certain fusion of individualities in a common whole, so that one's very self, for many purposes at least, is the common life and purpose of the group. Perhaps, the simplest way of describing the wholeness is by saying that it is a 'we', it involves the sort of sympathy and mutual identification of which 'we' is the natural expression".

Primary group is a "face-to-face association" with the relationship of "sympathy and mutual identification". It plays a very important role in forming the social nature and ideals of the individuals. The 'self' is developed by primary group relations. The best examples of primary groups are family, play group, neighborhood groups of village, tribe, clan etc.

The primary groups are considered to be equally important for the individual and society. They are the medium through which we learn our culture. They prepare the individuals to lead a successful social life. The primary groups perform the following functions:

1) Development of Personality:

The primary group plays a vital role in the development of human personality. It is fundamental, in forming the social nature and ideas of the individual. The primary group’s s as the family, the play-group and the neighborhood play an important role in socialising child. The development of "self' depends on close, intimate and personal contact among members in the primary groups. Primary groups teach the child the social norms, standard morals, beliefs, values and ideas of the society. The child acquires all his fundamental habits and attitudes of love and affection, sympathy, co-operation, sacrifice, disobedience, right and wrong etc. in the primary groups like family. In the play-group, the child learns to give a take with other children. The play-group affords him early training in meeting his equals. Learning to co-operate and to compete and struggling to express his own will. Primary groups make their member to learn and use culture and help the transmission of culture to succeeding generations. Upon the development of personality depends, in most cases, upon primary groups.

2) Satisfaction of Psychological Needs:

Primary groups satisfy many Psychology needs of the individuals. Individual’s mental peace, contentment and security from the primary groups. They get the advantage comparison ship, sympathy and exchange of throughout and feeling. They reduce mental ten and emotional stresses and strains.

3) Provision of Stimulus:

The Primary group not only provides satisfaction to the individuals, but also pro stimulus to each of its members in the pursuit of interest. In primary groups member get inspiration and co-operation from the others. So, with confidence and courage they work and strive to achieve goals. Primary groups promote efficiency. In a family, a person efficiency for his children that he can never work with such efficiency for himself.-

4) Strengthens the Democratic Spirit:

The democratic spirit is developed in primary groups. Primary groups help the individual to acquire basic attitudes towards people and social institutions. The attitudes of kill sympathy, tolerance, co-operation, mutual help and sacrifice etc., are developed in the groups which provide cementing force to social structure.

5) Agency of social control:

The primary groups acts as an informal agency of social control. It controls the behavior of its member and regulates their relations in informal ways. For example, family, neighborhood, peer-group control much of the activities of their members.

difference between primary and secondary group

Both Primary group and Secondary group differ from each other in certain respects. The chief points of differences between the primary group and secondary group are as follows.

1. Difference in Physical Proximity:

Primary group is characterized by close physical proximity. Members of primary group must be physically close to one another and personally known to each other. On the other hand, physical distance is characteristics feature of the secondary group. Members of the secondary group are scattered over a large place and therefore, they cannot live in close proximity.

2. Difference: in Size:

The size of the primary group is very small because it includes a small number of people. Small size of a primary group helps its members to develop personal relations among themselves. Secondary group on the other hand, is large in size. It may contain a large number of people and they are scattered all over the country. Due to its long size, the members do not have personal relations among themselves.

3. Difference in Relationship:

Primary group and secondary group differ from each other regarding the nature of relationship. The relations among the members of a primary group are face-to-face, direct, close, intimate, personal and permanent. But the relations among the members of a secondary group are touch and go type, indirect, less intimate, short, formal and impersonal.

4. Difference in Goals:

The aims and proposes of the members of primary groups are same and the persons take others interest as their own. But in secondary groups, the aims and purposes of the members are not same. The members of the secondary groups have different aims and they are always busy in their own business.

5. Difference in type of co-operation:

In the primary groups, the co-operation among the members is always direct and intimate. The members directly co-operate with each other, participate in same discussions, and take common decisions. But in secondary groups there is only indirect type of co-operation among the members because their functions are based on the principle of division of labor and specialization of work.

6. Difference in structure:

The structure of primary groups is very simple and rigid; the primary relations are guided by some rigid and informal means of customs, traditions, modes and norms. But the structure of secondary group is very complex and flexible.

7. Difference in means and ends:

Primary group is characterized by the primary relationship and this is not as a means to an end but an end itself. This relationship is voluntary and spontaneous. On the other hand, the secondary relationship is considered not as an end in itself but as a means to an end.

8. Difference in membership:

The membership of the primary groups is permanent and compulsory, because man lives, grows and dies within it. No one can deny the primary groups
membership. But the membership of the secondary groups is temporary and voluntary.

9. Difference in nature of control:

Primary groups control the behavior of the members through informal means such as customs, traditions, folkways, modes, norms, beliefs, suggestions, religion, art, literature, praise, reward, humor and satire etc. Secondary groups, on the other hand, control the behavior of its members by some formal means of social control such as law, police, court, jail, army and the like.

10. Difference in-position:

In primary groups, the position or status of a person is fixed according to his birth, age and sex. But in secondary groups the position of a person is determined by his roles.

11. Difference in the development of personality:

Primary group is concerned with the total personality of a person and it develops his whole personality. Secondary group on the other hand is concerned with a particular aspect of personality and it develops only that aspect.

12. Difference in personal activity:

Lastly, the members of primary groups are personally active and help each other whenever the need arises. But the members of secondary groups are mostly inactive members of the group.

16. What do you mean by social group? What are characteristics of social group ?

Man is a social animal. He does not live in isolation. His daily life is made up largely of participating in groups. So, men everywhere live in groups, such as family, clan, tribe, community etc. Besides it, people form group consciously to satisfy various needs. So they live in group, natural and artificial. In short, a social group in an aggregation of individuals in which:

a) Definite relations exist between individuals composing it and

b) Each individual is conscious of the group itself and its symbols. Viewed in this way, family, village, school, nation, political party or trade union etc. are some of examples of groups.

Definitions:

Maclver and page:

"A group is any collection of human beings who are brought into social relationships with one another".

A.W.Green:

"A group is an aggregate of individuals which persists in time, which has one or more interests, and activities in common and which is organised".

Ogburn and Nimkoff:

"Whenever two or more individuals come together and influence one another, they may be said to constitute social group

E.S. Bogardus:

"A group is a number of persons, two or more, who have common objects of attention, who are stimulating to each other, who have common loyalty and participate in similar activities."

Horton and Hunt:

“Groups are aggregates or categories of people who have a consciousness of membership and of interaction".

Characteristics of social group

1) Reciprocal Relations:

The members of a group are inter-related to each other. Simply, a gathering of persons cannot form a group. Mutual relations are considered essential for the formation of a social group.

2) Sense of Unity:

A sense of unity is essential for every group. Group members are tied by a sense of unity. By virtue of such a sense, members of a group develop loyalty or a feeling of sympathy among themselves.

3) We-feeling:

The members of a social group develop a sense of "we" feeling among them. "We-feeling" fosters co-operation among members and helps to defend their interests collectively. They treat others as outsides and try to make their group prosperous and self- sufficient.

4) Common interests:

The interests and ideals of a group are common. In fact, people from the group for the fulfillment of their common objectives or interests.

5) Group Norms:

Every group has its own rules and norms, which the members are supposed to follow. The group exercises control over its members through the norms.

6) Similarity of Behavior:

As the interests, ideals and values of the persons of a group are common; they behave in more or less similar way for the achievement of common interests.

7) Stability:

Groups are permanent or temporary in nature, some groups like the crowd, mob etc. are temporary and unstable. But group like family is relatively permanent and stable in nature.

8) Groups are Dynamic:

Social groups are not static. They are dynamic. The rate of change may be slow or rapid. Due to internal or external pressures, groups undergo changes.

17. what do you mean by institution ? What are important characteristics of social institutions?

Institutions are usually defined as certain enduring and accepted forms of procedure governing the relations between individuals and groups. Every organisation depends upon certain recongnised and established set of rules, traditions and usages. These usages and rules are the institutions. They are the forms of procedures which are accepted and recognised by society and govern the relations between individuals and groups.

People form an association to satisfy their needs. But these needs are also satisfied through institutions. So every association has its own institutions. Without these, no association can regulate the members. For example, family in association has its own institutions like marriage, the system of property and inheritance. A state as an association has its own institutions like government, legislative procedure, constitutions etc.

Similarly, church is a religious association, but worship and the administration of the sacraments are its institutions, According to Lowie, sociologically the most important institutions are marriage, kinship, law, property, religion and education. In short, associations denote membership, institutions are modes and ways. We are born in a group and live in it, but we act through institutions.

Institutions are the characteristic agencies of any permanent human associations they are the wheels on which human society marches on, the machinery through which human society carries on its activities.

Definitions:

Maclver and Page:

"Institutions are the established forms or conditions of procedure characteristic of group activity".

Woodward and Maxwell:

"An institution is a set or web of interrelated folkways, mores and laws which enter in some function or functions".

A. W. Green:

"An institution is the organisation of several folkways and mores into a unit which serves a number of social functions".

Bogards:

"A social institution is a structure of society that is organised to meet the needs of people chiefly through well established procedures".

Kimball Young:

"An association is a set of folkways and mores integrated round a principal function of the society".

E. A. Ross:

"Institutions are sets of organised relationships established or sanctioned by common

Will".

Horton and Hunt:

"An institution is an orgnised system of relationships which embodies certain common rules and procedures and meets certain basic needs of the society".

Important characteristics of institutions

The following characteristics of institution may be described here:

1) Institutions are the means of controlling individuals. It regulates the conduct of people in society.

2) Institutions depend upon the collective activities of the people.

3) Every institution has got a symbol, which may be material or non-material.

4) Every institution has some rules which must be compulsory obeyed by individuals. Institutions like religion, law, legislation etc., control the behavior of people.

5) The institution has definite procedures, which are formed on the basis of customs and dogmas. They prescribe the way of doing things. A marriage as an institution governs the relations between the husband and wife.

6) Institutions are more stable than other means of social control. They do not undergo rapid changes. Many institutions are rigid. So, institutions are relatively permanent. It

Lasts a generation or more.

7) Institutions are formed to satisfy the primary needs of men. They have one or more clear-cut aim and objectives.

8) Institutions are abstract. They are not external, visible or tangible things.

9) Institutions are universal; they exist in all societies and existed at all the stages of social development.

Positive and negative functions of institutions

Functions:

The function that the institutions perform may be divided into two categories:-

1) Positive functions.

2) Negative functions.

Positive Functions:

1) In society, moral ideas, knowledge and modes of behavior are transferred from one generation to another through the medium of institution. This helps younger generation in the solution of the problems confronting it.

2) Institutions control human behavior. The unexpected, irregular behavior of people is replaced by expected, systematic and regular behavior through the institutions.

3) Institutions act as instrument of social control. For example, the institution of marriage controls the sexual relations of the individuals in society. Institution indicates the right path to man and imposes control upon activities.

4) Institutions contribute to the fulfillment of the fundamental human needs such as the provision of food, clothing, shelter and sexual needs.

5) Institutions provide definite role and status for the individuals. Institutions such as family, marriage, property etc. provide some social standing for the individual concerned.

6) Institutions contribute to unity and uniformity of society. They regulate relations among people who have largely been responsible for unity and uniformity that are found in a society.

7) Institutions like family and school play very important role in the process of socialization.

8) Institutions give stability to the social group. The efficiency of a social group largely depends upon the effectiveness of its institutional arrangements.

Negative Functions:

The institutions do not undergo changes easily and quickly. Because of this reason

They retard social progress. They even hamper the growth of personalities of the people.

Religion and caste may be mentioned here as examples to show how they often discourage

People to go for achievements or adventures.

18. What do you mean by association? Define essential characteristics of association.

Men have diverse needs, desires and interests. All these needs cannot be fulfilled by man himself. So people from different groups and association to cater various needs. When a Coma group of people organize itself expressly for the pursuit of some common interests or interests, an association is born. A mere group of people without having common end does not form an association.

A collection of individual or a crowd without having a definite aim cannot form an association. A family, a club, a political party, a college, a trade Union, a municipality etc. some of the examples of associations. In all these cases, these social groups have a specific goal to attain. As the interests of men are manifold, there are various associations to fulfillment economic, social political and other interests of people. Hence, an association is an organised group formed for the specific purpose of fulfilling the common needs of a number of people!

Definitions

Maclver:

"An association is an organisation deliberately formed for the collective pursuit of some interest, or a set of interests which its members share".

Morris Ginsberg:

"An Association is a group of social beings.”Elated to one another by the fact that they posses or have instituted in common an organisation with a view to securing a specified end or specific ends".

E. ST Bogardus:

"Association is usually a working together of people to achieve some purposes”.

Giilin and Gillin

"An Association is a group of individuals united for a specific purpose or purpose and held together by recognised or sanctioned modes of procedure or behavior".

Important characteristics of association

The essential characteristics/elements of association are as follows:

1) A group of people:

An association is created or formed for the attainment of the objectives. Without people there can be no association. Hence, a group of people is an essential condition of an association.

2) Common interests:

An association is not a mere collection of human beings. It consists of those individuals who have some interests in common.

3) Co-operative Spirit:

An association is based on co-operative spirit of its members. People work together to achieve some common purposes. It gives opportunities to its members to work together to achieve some common purposes.

4) Organisation:

An association is formed of those individuals who are organised in order to fulfill some specific interests. So, an association is known as an organised group.

5) Some Rules and Regulations:

The organisation of an association rests upon a particular set of laws. These laws are necessary for regulating the conduct of members belonging to an association. The members of an association follow these rules and regulations.

6) Voluntary membership:

The membership of an association is voluntary. It is not compulsory. People voluntarily join in an association for the achievement of their desired objectives. They can also withdraw their membership according to their own wishes.

7) Durability

An association may be permanent or temporary in nature. Some associations like the state, family, etc. are permanent. Some associations are organised for a very temporary period. For example, the Flood Relief Association is a temporary association.

19. what do you mean by community and what are characteristics of community ?

Man cannot live alone. He is related in many ways to his fellows to form a group. But it is not possible for man to become the member of all groups. He establishes relations only with those people who reside near him in a definite locality. It is natural that people who reside in a particular area for a considerable length of time develop social likeness among themselves. They develop common social ideas, common traditions and customs, sense of belonging together. This fact of social living and common specific area gives birth to community.

Definition of Community:

E. S. Bogardus:

Community is "a social group with some degree of "we-feeling" and living in a given area".

2) Lundberg:

Community is a "human population living within a limited geographical area and carrying on a common interdependent life".

3) K. Davis:

Community is "the smallest territorial group that can embrace all aspects of social

4) Ogburn and Nimkoff:

Community is "the total organisation of social life with a limited area ".

5) Talcott Parsons:

"A community is that collectivity the members of which share a common territorial area as their base of operation for daily activities".

6) Maclver and Page:

“Whenever the member of any group small or large live together in such a way that they share, not this or that particular interest but the conditions of a common life, we call that group a community.

So, Community is a group of people living together and leading a common life in a definite geographical area. It is marked by some degree of social coherence. A village, a tribal, and a city, are some examples of community.

Elements of community

The, essential elements of community are described below:

i) Group of people:

Community is a group of human beings. It is not possible to form a community without a group of men and women.

ii) Definite locality:

A community always occupies a definite geographical area. Locality is the physical .basis of community. Without a definite locality, social relations between human beings cannot be established and the 'we' feeling cannot evolve.

iii) Community Sentiment:

Community sentiment means a feeling of belonging together. It is "we feeling" among the members. The members of a community speak the same language, conform to the same mores, posses the same sentiment, and have the same attitudes.

iv) Like ness:

The people in a community share a common way of life. Their customs, traditions, mores, language etc. are similar.

v) Permanency:

A community is not temporary like a crowd or a mob. It is relatively stable. It includes a permanent life in a definite place.

vi) Neutrality:

Communities are not deliberately created. They are not made by planned efforts. An individual is born in a community. It has a natural growth of its own.

vii) A particular Name:

Every community has some particular name. In the words of Lumley, "It points identity, it indicates reality, it points out individuality, it often describes personality and each community is something of a personality ".

viii) Size:

A community may be big or small. A small community may be included in a wider community. For example, a city and a village may be included in a district. District may enclose small communities-like villages, towns, tribes etc.

ix) Wider ends:

People in community share several common interests. They associate not for the fulfillment of a particular end. The ends of a community are wider. People work together to fulfill some common interests.

x) Regulation of Relations:

Every Community in course of time develops a system of traditions, customs, and morals.

Practices, some rules and regulations to regulate the relations of its members. People in a community come together to meet the primary needs through a common set of institutions and organisations.

20. What do you mean by society and what are elements of society ?

Every science has its own terms and concepts, which carry some precise meaning these terms, help a student of science to understand it more clearly. The students of sociology also should have a clear understanding of its basic concepts. In this chapter we shall try to explain some basic concepts used in sociology.

Meaning of Society:

The term Society is the most fundamental one in sociology. It is used in very wide sense. In common parlance, the society is to refer to members of specific groups. For example, we speak of Harijan Society, Teacher's Society, and Students society and the like. Similarly, the word is used to refer to some specific institution like, Brahma Samaj, Arya Samaj, etc. Bui in sociology, the term "Society" refers not to group of people but to the complex pattern of the norms of interaction that arise among them. People are only the agents of social relationship, they are regarded as things. A society is intangible; it is a process rather than a thing, motion rather than structure". Society is a web of social relationships, the pattern of norms of interaction by which the members of the society maintain themselves.

Some scholars are of the opinion that society exists only when the members know each other and possess common interests or objects. For instance, two persons travelling in the same train, in the same compartment, at the same seat, do not form society, because they are not socially related and do not have mutual recognition. But as soon as they come to know each other, the element of society is created.

Definition of society:

Some definitions of the term "society" are given below:

Maclver and Page:

"Society is a system of usages and procedures, authority and mutual aid, of many groupings and divisions, of human behavior and of liberties"

Cooley:

“Society is a complex of forms or processes each of which is living and growing by interaction with the other, the whole being so unified that what takes place in one part affects all the rest".

Giddings:

"Society is the union itself, the organization, the sum of formal relations in which associating individuals are bound together".

Ginsberg:

"A Society is a collection of individuals united by certain relations or modes of behavior which mark them off from others who do not enter into these relations or who differ from them in behavior".

Lapiere:

"The term Society refers not to group of people, hut to the complex pattern of the norms of interaction, which arise among and between them".

G.D.H. Cole:

"Society is the complex of organised associations and institutions within the community" If we analyse these definitions it will appear that all these fall under two types:

(i) The functional definition which views a society as a process and

(ii) The structural definition which views Society as a structure.

From the functional point of view, Society is defined as a complex of groups in reciprocal relationship, interacting upon one another, enabling human organism to carry on their life -activities structural point of view, society is the total social heritage of folkways, mores and institutions, of habits, sentiments and ideals. Maclver, Cooley and Lapiere have given functional definition of society while Ginsberg Giddings and Cole take a structural view of Society.

Elements of society:

 (i) A System of social relationship

According to Maclver Society is "a web of social relationship". Social relationship is the basis of Society. The family alone is said to have as many as fifteen relationships based on age, sex and generation. Outside the family there is no limit to the number of possible relationships. Reutor says" Just as life is not a things but a process of living, so society is not a thing but a process of associating". The meaning of social relationship shall be clearer if we draw a distinction between physical and social relation. The relationship between pen and ink, earth and sun, a book and bookshelf, fire and wood is physical relationship because these physical objects do not have any reciprocal awareness what so ever. On the other hand, the social relations exist between the mother and the child, the teacher and the thought are determined by reciprocal awareness. Without this awareness, there can be no social relationship, and therefore no society.

(ii) Likeness

Likeness is an essential prerequisite of society. Maclver Says," Society means likeness". It exists among the like beings, like-bodied and like-minded". It is likeness or similarity, which provides for understanding each by the other. An understanding of this sort lies at the root of our friendship, intimacy, association, institution and any such other type of social relationship. In the primitive society, the sense of likeness was focused on kinship that is real or supposed blood relationships. But the scope of likeness has broadened in modern societies. People establish similar social relationships in a society on account of similar traditions, folkways, mores etc. Thus, similarity or likeness is the basis of society.

(iii) Difference:

Society also implies difference. If individuals are exactly alike, their social relationship would be very much limited. There would be little reciprocity, little give and take Family, for example, rests on biological difference of sexes. People differ from one another in their attitude ability, talent; personality etc. people peruse different activities because of these differences.

(iv) Inter-dependence:

Interdependence is another essential element of society. Family, for example, is based on the biological interdependence of sexes. One depends upon the other for the satisfaction of one's needs. Today not only countries but also continents depend upon one another.

(v) Co-Operation and Conflict:

Society is based on co-operation. It is the very basis of social life. Unless people co­operate with each other they cannot lead a happy and comfortable life. No society can be healthy and prosperous without co-operation. Family rests on co-operation with one another to live happily. In the words of P.Gisbert “co-operation is the most elementary process of social life without which society is impossible”. Co-operation avoids mutual destructiveness and results in economy.

Along with co-operation, there is conflict in society. It is the cause of evolution. It makes us think of the process of struggle through which all things have come into existence. Maclver says that "Society is co-operation crossed by conflict".

(iv) Culture

Every Society is unique because it has its own culture. Culture is a thing which only human beings possess. It refers to the social heritage of man. It includes our attitude, moral values beliefs, ideas, ideologies, our institutions, political, legal economic, our sciences and philosophies. The member of a society shares a common culture.

(vii) Society is abstract

Society is an organization marked by division of labour of some kind or other. It consists of social relations, customs, laws and mores etc. These social relations are abstract and intangible. It cannot be seen or touched. It can only be realized. In this way, abstractness is an element of society.

21. Why man is called social animal ?

Aristotle, the Greek philosopher writes "Man is a social animal. He who lives without society is either a beast or God". Thus, man is by nature a social animal. He is born in society lives in society and dies in society. Society is indispensable for man. Man cannot live as man, without society. Isolation from society is regarded as a punishment. Solitary life is unbearable for him. Social life is necessary for man. The instinct for some form of social life is innate in human being. Professor Park says, "Man is not born human but to be made human". Man can be called social animal for the following reasons:

1) Man is social by nature:

Human nature is such that it cannot but live in society. Man's nature impels him to live in society. The human child is endowed with some latent capacities. Human qualities like capacity to learn language, enquire and think, play and work ,help or harm others, etc. are developed in human society only. These capacities grow through social interaction with others. One cannot develop into a normal person in isolation. There are eminent sociologist like Maciver and others who have cited a number of cases. Studies. These case studies show the fact that man develops human qualities only in society.

(i) The case of Kasper Houser:

Kasper Hauser, a young German boy, was isolated from all kinds of human contact when he was a small child. He lived in isolation in the forest of Nuremberg till he reached the age of seventeen. He was brought out form the forest in 1928 and was taken to the city of Nuremberg. It was found that he could neither walk nor talk properly. He simply muttered a few-meaningless phrase. He could not distinguish between inanimate and animate objects after his death, the post-mortem. Report revealed that his mental development was not normal In spite of his subsequent education be could never become a normal man.

ii) The case of Amala and Kamala

Two Hindu children Amala and Kamala were discovered in a Wolf den in 1928. By then Amala was two years old and Kamala was nearly eight at the time, when they were discovered from the den. Amala died soon after discovery. Kamala continued to live until 1929. It was found that she behaved like a beast and walked like a four-footed animal. She could not speak and growled like a wolf. She was shy of human contact. It was only after careful and sympathetic training that she could learn some social habits like simple speech, eating, dressing and the like.

iii) The case of Anna.

Recently the case of Anna, an elegits mint American child was studied by some sociologists and psychologists. Anna at the age of six months was placed in a room in complete isolation for nearly five years. She was discovered in 1938. On the discovery, it was found that, she could not walk or speak and was indifferent to people around her. She was given careful training after which she rapidly developed human qualities. She died in 1942. The case of Anna proves that human nature develops only when he is one of many people sharing a common life.

These cases prove that human being is social by nature. Human nature develops in man only when he lives in society.

2) Development of self.

The human infant, at his birth, is not fully aware of his own "self'. He develops the idea of self through the interaction with others. Charles H.Cooley says that the very idea of "self' or "I" can arise only in relationship with other people. G.H.Mead says that at first the child performs the role of others with his parents and other persons at home. Then, gradually he takes the role of other persons such as playmates, friends etc. In this way self develops.

3) Social heritage determines Human personality

Man is social because he depends on social heritage which is a mixture of customs beliefs and ideals etc. Society preserves social heritage and transmits it from one generation to another. Social heritage molds man's attitudes, beliefs, morals and ideals. It is said that "Man only becomes man among Men". Man is born with some inborn potentialities. It is the social heritage, which determines the manner in which his innate potentialities express themselves in society. Emotional development, intellectual maturity is not possible without society. Therefore, society determines our mental equipment's. It shapes our identity, our thought and our emotions.

4) Necessity makes a man social.

Necessity compels man to live in society. Man has a variety of needs. If he leads a cooperative life with his fellow beings in society he can easily get his needs fulfilled. Many of his needs will remain unsatisfied if he does not lead a cooperative life with his fellow beings. The human child is born helpless. Without proper care he cannot develop himself. During infancy he must be provided with nutrition, shelter and affection. It is society, which extends protection, attention and opportunities necessary for his survival and growth.

The society protects the child against all sorts of danger and difficulty. Apart from fulfilling the basic needs of a man, the society satisfies his desires and aspirations. The society fulfills various needs like educational, protection, nurture, opportunity and equipment's etc. The need for self- preservation which is felt by everyone is fulfilled by society. So the prolonged dependence of human child compels him to live in society.

There are mainly two theories of the relationship of man and society. One of them is Social Contract Theory and the other is Organismic Theory.

Social contract Theory was originated by three eminent philosophers namely, Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), John Locke (1632-1778) and Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). The exponents of this theory believed that people lived in the 'State of Nature' before the society came in to existence. At this primitive stage, people had no idea about society. But, the exponents expressed different views on the prevailing conditions of the 'State of Nature'. The society was the result of the contract among individuals for their collective as well as personal benefit.

Organism Theory is divided into two kinds namely, the organic theory and the Group-mind theory.

The organic Theory was propounded by Herbert Spencer, Novico, Spengler, Bluntschli and others in the nineteenth century. This theory states that society is a kind of living organism. Its structure and functions resemble the structure and functions of the living human body. The human body goes through different stages of development such as birth, youth, maturity, old age and death. Society also passes through similar stages. The organs of human of human body like the ears, eyes, hands, head, legs etc. are all inter-dependent and they form an organic whole, although each of them has distinct functions of its own. In the same way, society is composed of associations and institutions with specific functions.

The circulatory system of the human body corresponds to the communication and transport system of the society, the nervous system corresponds to the system of the government in the society. The biological being is composed of cells. Similarly, society is composed of individuals who are regarded as its cells. In this way, organic theory shows that the relation between the individual and society are intimate,

The group mind Theory states that society has a collective or group mind. A number of philosophers have subscribed to this view, but for the first time, it was Plato who mentioned the social mind in his Republic. Plato regarded civil society as a mind "writ large". The idealistic philosophers hold the view that society is a super-individual entity. It has a mind of its own. It is more than the minds of the individuals.

William Mc Dougall accepts the concept of the social mind or, what is the otherwise known as group-mind. According to him, "The Society has a mental life or its own which is not the mere sum of the mental lives of its units existing as independent units.

Emile Durkheim also believes in the social mind. According to him, social mind is distinct from the mind of the individuals and is superior to it. The social mind or collective consciousness is the higher form of psychic life.

22.  Note on contributions of fathers of sociology ?

Auguste Comte, the father of sociology was born in the year 1798. He coined die term Sociology in 1839. His major works are positive philosophy, systems of positive polity and religion of Humanity. His important contributions to sociology are classification and ordering of social sciences. The nature method and scope of sociology, the law of three stages, the plan for social reconstruction and the positivism.

One of the most important contributions of Comte is Law of Three stages. The law states that human thought has undergone three successive stages of development. Technological stage, the primary stage in which man sees and judges everything in terms of supernatural beings. It is divided into again three stages i.e. Fetishism - worshipping inanimate objects, polytheism - worshipping many Gods and Monotheism - worshipping one God. Second stage is the Metaphysical stage which is guided by some abstract principles and the most developed stage is the last stage i.e. the Positive stage which is guided by scientific knowledge emphasing on scientific data and facts establishing cause and effect relationship.

Herbert Spencer is known as the second founding father of sociology. In fact, it was he who popularized the term "Sociology" by way of using it in the title of his book "Principle of Sociology". Herbert Spencer was born on April 27, 1820, in Derby in England. He was a man of original and independent thinking. Spencer wrote a number of books. They are as follows (I) Social Statics (1850) 2) First principles (1862) 3) the study of sociology (1873) 4). The principles of Sociology in three volumes (1876-96) 5). The man versus the state (1884)

Spencer's sociology is built around two main concepts. In an organism the parts form a concrete whole, but in a society the parts are free and more or less dispersed. In an organism consciousness is concentrated in a small part of the whole, in society it is diffused. The part - exist for the benefit of the whole in an organism but in a society the whole exists for the benefit of the individuals.

His organic analogy suffers from certain criticisms such as the death of the society does not come with organic inevitableness. But whether we accept or reject Spencer's comparison between the human society and the organism, we are bound to acknowledge the fact that he popularised organic analogy and the idea of social evolution. In fact, the doctrine laid the foundation of Spencer's theory of organic analogy. He established the hypothesis that society is like a biological organism and then went out to give certain similarities and dissimilarities between the society and the some of the similarities are that both society and organisms are distinguished from inorganic matter by visible growth. Both grow in size. In organism and in society there is an interdependence of parts.

Just as Spencer emphasized the similarities between society and organism, he also spelled out the different between them the concept of system in our sociological discussion.

Emile Durkheim, the French Philosopher, was the first modern thinker who emphasized on the reality of society. He laid stress on the comparative method of sociology. He gave top priority to the society and not the individual. So if Comte is rightly called the father of sociology, then Durkheim is the grandfather of sociology.

Durkheim's contribution to sociology is enormous. Being a functionalist to the core, he talked of the functions of the society, so he always talked of the social order. His major writings are "The Division of Labour". The Rules of sociological method". "Suicide" a "The Elementary forms of religious life".

Durkheim's study of suicide rejected all the usual explanations about suicide due personal, hereditary or due to financial and geographical factors. Rather he stated that suicide has a social cause.

He stated about four types of suicide namely egoistic, altruistic, and anomic and fatalist: suicide. Egoistic suicide occurs due to lack of integration of the individual into his study social group. It is very much seen in the modern society. Egoistic suicide is the index of social disorganization in modern society. This type of suicide is found among the divorced persons.

Altruistic suicide occurs due to excess of social integration of the individual to group. This type of suicide mostly occurs in traditional and primitive societies. There three types of altruistic suicide such as obligatory, optional and acute altruistic suicide.

Anomic suicide occurs when there is lack of regulation in the society. The breakdown of social norms and sudden social changes that are characteristics of modern times encourage anemic suicide. In analyzing the consequences of anomie, Durkheim showed that there was a high rate of anomic suicide among those who are wealthy as well as divorced persons. Fatalistic suicide occurs due to excess of social regulation .The opposite of altruistic suicide is fatalist which arises as a result of increased control over the individual by the group.

Durkheim's theory of suicide has been subjected to searching criticisms. Durkheim has given importance to the social factors in suicide and has reduced the importance of other factors.

23.          What are contributions of August Comte’?

Thinkers occupy a prime position in the development of any discipline, especially so in the social sciences. Sociology 'is no exception to this rule, and in its emergence and develop a plethora of social thinkers have made their contributions. Systematic study of sociology a science, particularly, as a separate discipline, originated with Insider Auguste Francois M Xavier Comte during nineteenth century. It is during this period modern sociology emerged the places like France, Germany and England. Since then, galaxies of thinkers and writ have contributed to the development of sociological thought. Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer Emile Durkheim and Max Weber are the four men who are regarded as the central figures founding fathers and the great masters of sociological thought in the. Development of mod sociology.'

Auguste Comte, a volatile Frenchman, philosopher, moralist and sociologist, traditionally regarded as the father of sociology. He coined the term sociology and bee father of sociology. He tried to create a new science of society, which would not only explain the past of mankind but also predict its future course. Auguste Comate was born in France the year 1798. He invented a new discipline which he called at first social physics and changed it to sociology thereafter. "Auguste Comte may be considered as first and foremost, sociologist of human and social unity" so writes the French sociologist Raymond Aron. Important works are:

(1) Positive Philosophy (1830-42).

(2) Systems of positive polity (1851 -54)

(3) Religion of Humanity (1856).

His contribution to sociology can be divided into four categories. They are namely:-

(1) Classification and ordering of social sciences.

(2) The nature, method and scope of sociology.

(3) The law of three stages.

(4) The plan for social reconstruction.

(5) Positivism.

LAW OF THREE STAGES:

Auguste Comte was the first person to proclaim Law of Three stages, which became the corner stone of his thought. Of course, this famous law had been borrowed from R. J. Turgot, Y. B.Vico and Saint-Simon. The law states that human thought has undergone three separate stages in its evolution and development. According to him human thought as well as social progress pass through three important stages. These three stages are the universal law of human progress. These three stages are common in case of the development of human knowledge as well as social evolution. Human individual is a staunch believer during childhood, then becomes a critical metaphysician in adolescence and becomes a natural Philosopher during manhood. A similar case of development takes place in case of human society. Law of Three Stages not only talks about the progressive transformation of society but also explain the transformation in minds of the people. The evolution of human mind goes hand in hand with a typical form of organisation of society. The period of growth and development in society is known as:

(1) Theological or Fictitious stage.

(2) Metaphysical' or Abstract stage.

(3) Positive or Scientific stage.

Comte stated that each succeeding stage is superior to the earlier stage.

Theological or Fictitious Stage:

During the primitive stage, the early man believed that all phenomena of nature are the creation of the divine or supernatural. The primitive man and children do not have the scientific outlook, therefore it is characterised by unscientific outlook. They failed to discover the natural causes of various phenomena and hence attributed them to supernatural or divine power. For example, primitive men saw God everywhere in nature. They supposed that excess or deficiency of rain due to Godly wrath; such a casual explanation would be in terms of theological or fictitious explanation. The theological stage of thinking may be divided into three sub-stages such as

a) Fetishism.

b) Polytheism.

c) Monotheism.

a) Fetishism was the primary stage of theological stage of thinking. During this period primitive people believed that there is a living spirit in the nonliving objects. This is otherwise known as animism. People worshipped inanimate objects like tress, stones, a piece of wood, etc. These objects are considered as Fetish.

b) Polytheism means believing in many Gods. Primitive people believed that different Gods control different natural forces. Each God had some definite function and his scope and area of action was determined. For example, God of water, God of rain and God of fire, God of air, etc.

c) Monotheism is the last and the most developed form of theological thinking. Monotheism means believing in one God or God in one.

Metaphysical or Abstract stage: -

Metaphysical stage is an extension of theological stage. During this period, reason and rationality was growing. Reason replaced imagination. People tried to believe that God is an abstract being. Soul is the spark of divine power i.e. inform of abstract forces. It is believed that an abstract power or force guides and determines the events in the world. Metaphysical thinking discards belief in concrete God. The nature of enquiry was legal and rational in nature. For example; Classical Hindu Indian society where the principle of transmigration of soul, the conception of rebirth, notions of pursuant has were largely governed by metaphysical uphill.

Positive or Scientific Stage:

This positive stage is also known a scientific stage. The dawn of 19th century marked the beginning of this stage. It is characterised by scientific knowledge. In this stage, human mind gave up the taken for granted approach. At this stage, human mind tried to establish cause and affect relationship. Scientific knowledge is based on facts. Facts are collected by observation and classification of phenomena.

Positivism is a purely intellectual way of looking at the world. Positivism emphasises on observation and classification of data and facts. One can observe uniformities or laws about natural as well as social phenomena. Positivistic thinking is best suited to the need of industrial society.

Criticisms:

The concept rational doesn't have universal meanings, what is rational to one society may not be to society another.

Max Weber advocates that the nature of progress of society should not be studied by the preconceived philosophical outlines rather they should be studied form objective and empirical stand point.

24. What are contributions of Herbert Spencer in Sociology?

Herbert Spencer was a theorist whose valuable insights have often been drowned in a sea of irrelevance and spacious reasoning. He is popularly known as the British Aristotle and often called the second founding father of sociology. Spencer's ideas have left an indelible impression on the succeeding writers. Spencer's name was associated with the birth of sociology in England. Herbert Spencer was born an April 27, 1820, in Derby in England. He was a man of original and independent thinking. He has contributed to various fields of knowledge like philosophy, biology, psychology, anthropology and sociology. Spencer wrote a number of books. They are as follows.

1) Social Statics (1850)

2) First Principles (1862).

3) The study of Sociology (1873)

4) The Principles of Sociology in three volumes (1876-96)

5) The Man verses the State (1884) Organic Analogy:

Spencer is popularly known for his treatment of evolution. The evolutionary doctrine was no doubt the foundation of Spencer's sociological theory. He, however, presented the organic analogy, a secondary doctrine which also played a vital role in his thought system. He identified society with a biological organism. But this comparison of the society with the biological organism was not originally propounded by Herbert Spencer. Several other philosophers had given the concept previously. He established the hypothesis that society is like a biological organism and then proceeded to defend it against all objectives with great logical force. Indeed, he regarded the recognition of the similarity between society and organism as the first step towards a general theory of evaluation. In his "Principles of Sociology Spencer observed some similarities between biological and social organism:-

Society is thus viewed as being essentially analogous to an organism, with its interdependent parts or organs making up the body of society.

Spencer observed some similarities between biological and social organism:-

1) Both society and organisms are distinguished from inorganic matter by visible growth, a child grows up to a man, a small community becomes a great city, a small state an empire.

2) Both grow in size and this growth is accomplished by increasing complexity of structure,

3) In the organism and in society there is an interdependence of parts. The progressive differentiation of structure in both is accompanied by progressive differentiation of functions.

In both, the differentiation of structure is followed by a similar differentiation of function. 5) The life of society, like the life of an organism is far larger than the life of any of the units of parts.

Differences:-

Having out lined these similarities, Spencer points out the ways in which societies and organism differ from each other. The differences are as follows,

1) The organism is a concrete, integrated whole whereas society is a whole composed of discrete and dispersed elements.

2) In an organism consciousness is concentrated in a small part of the aggregate, while in society consciousness is diffused.

3) Unlike organisms, societies have no specific external form, such as a physical body with limbs or face.

4) In an organism, the parts are fixed and bound together in close contact while, in a society parts are separated and dispersed.

5) In an organism the parts exist for the benefit of the whole. In a society, the whole exists merely for the benefit of the individual.

However, in spite of such elaborate description, Spencer points out that his analogy mainly serves the purpose of scaffolding which is removed when the building is completed and that the scaffolding itself has no value. Spencer has given much importance to the term organism that the scaffolding is usually mistaken for the real structure.

Criticisms:

Spencer's theory suffers from certain drawbacks. Spencer used his organic analogies in a ridiculous manner. For example, he compared the king's council to the medulla oblongata, the House of Lords to the cerebellum, and the House of commons to the cerebrum. The organic analogy was used by thinkers in their discussions even prior to Spencer. If a society is an organism, it undergoes a cycle of birth, maturity and death. But the death of a society does not come with organic inevitableness. A society need not die also. Timasheff is of the view that merely on the ground of systematic similarity, society cannot be considered an organism.

But in spite of all these criticisms, his organism theory highly influenced the later sociologists like Paulvan, Ward, Sumner and Giddings.

25.  What are contributions of Emile Durkheim?

The writings of another French Writer, Emile Durkheim have had a more lasting impact on modern sociology than those of Comte. Indeed, he became the pioneer in giving sociology the status of a science and it’s our method of study. Durkheim was born in Lorraine of France in 1858. He was the only founding father who could occupy the part of Professor of Sociology. Although he drew an aspect of Comte's work, Durkheim thought that many of his predecessor's ideas were too speculative and vague. To become scientific, according to Durkheim, sociology must study social facts, i.e. aspects of social life that shape our actions as individuals.

Like the other major founders of sociology, Durkheim was preoccupied with the changes transforming society in his own lifetime. His major writings are 'The Division of Labour', 'the rules of sociological method', 'Suicide' and 'The Elementary forms of religious life'.

Suicide:

One of Durkheim's most famous studies was concerned with the analysis of suicide (Durkheim 1952, originally published in 1897). In his book, he has given a fine sociological analysis of suicide which is based as the theory of sociology or collective mind. The book is praised as a research classic.

Suicide seems to be a purely personal act, the outcome of extreme person unhappiness. But Durkheim showed that social factors exert a fundamental influence on suicidal behavior. Durkheim defined suicide as "every case of death resulting directly or indirectly from a positive or negative act performed by the victim himself, which he knows will produce this result". A positive act would be to shoot one or to hang one. In this case, death comes as a direct result of the action. A negative act would be to remain in a burning house or to refuse to take food to the point of starvation. Death in this case comes to an individual indirectly.

In his classic study of suicide, he demonstrated that neither psychopathic factors, nor hereditary, nor climate, nor imitation, nor poverty, nor unhappy love and other personal factors are responsible for suicide. Suicide is a social fact and is due to social forces. Individuals are compelled to commit suicide whenever the condition of society departs from a state of balance. Society maintains balance by "integration” and "regulation". Integration refers to the extent to which individuals experience a sense of belonging to the group or collective and "regulation" refers to the extent to which the actions and desires of individuals are restrained by moral values. A society, which passes too much integration and regulation, will create four types of suicide such as egoistic, altruistic, anomic and fatalistic. Egoistic Suicide:

Egoistic suicide occurs when an individual feels him too much isolated from the social group. It results from the lack of integration of the individual into his study of social group. It is very much seen in modern society. Our modern society which is characterised by impersonal self centered and secondary associations leaves the individual socially isolated and extremely cut off from the normal contacts. Therefore, a good number of individuals commit suicide. This led Durkheim to say that egoistic suicide is the index of social disorganisation in modern society. By analysing suicide statistics, Durkheim found that the suicide rate was more in case of the unmarried, widowed, divorced those without children, and those with no strong attachments to religious, social or community groups.

Altruistic suicide:

Altruistic suicide occurs when the integration of the individual and the group is too close and intimate so much so that he is completely controlled by the group without any regard for his personality. Psychologically, it is based on the individual sense of duty to sacrifice himself for the sake of larger social unity. Briefly speaking, self-destruction is caused under pressure of the social need. This type of suicide mostly occurs is traditional and primitive societies. According to Durham altruistic suicide is of three types.

(I) Obligatory altruistic suicidal refers to a type of suicidal in which honour is involved For example, the Hindu practice of sati that kills her by placing on the funeral pyre of her dead husband.

(II) Optional altruistic suicide is praise worthy act. For example, in the case of hara-kiri, the individual is so strongly attached to the demands of his society, that he is willing to take his life when the norms so demand. Self-killing by army suicide squads and self destruction by human bombs of militant groups are some of the examples of optional suicide.

(III) Acute altruistic suicide occurs when the individual kills himself for the purpose of joy of sacrifice and self renunciation. Self killing of Buddhist monk can be cited as an example in this connection

Men and women who are old and invalid, women whose husbands are deed, men and women who disgrace the group through the utter violation of sudden group morals are socially designated for altruistic type of suicide.

Anomic Suicide

Anome is a French word which means normlessness or a state without rules or regulations. The society fixes up norms, which prescribe the attainable goal. Anomie describes the situation when this is framework breaks down and there is chaos and confusion in the society.

Anomic suicide occurs when there is lack of regulation in the society. This type of suicide is dell to a sudden breakdown of the social equilibrium such as sudden business depression, inflation etc. Suicides occur after bankruptcies-insolvency or even after winning a lottery are many commit suicide. It follows, therefore, that such suicides are not only conditioned by some sudden disastrous change in the life of an individual, but it can also be governed by some sudden change for the better in an individual's life. The increasing poverty is not an adequate explanation of such suicides because the suicide rate increases not only in case of poverty, but also due to prosperity. The important fact to be noted in this connection is that many persons are unable to adjust themselves to such sudden violent changes in their life's organisation, whether the change is towards a happy or unhappy direction. Under such circumstances anomic suicide moreover solves their personal dilemma.

In analysing the consequences of anomie, Durkheim showed that there was a high rate of anomic suicide among those who are wealthy as well as divorced persons. Sudden changes in the standard of living or the breakdown of a marriage throws life out of gear and puts norms in a flux. Like economic anomie, domestic anomie resulting from the death of husband or wife is also the result of a destruction that upsets the scale of life.

Fatalistic Suicide:

This occurs due to excess of social regulation. The opposite of altruistic suicide is fatalist which arises as a result of increased control over the individual by the group. When there was an excess or strict regulation, which become un-tolerable then the individual commits this type of suicide. It was committed by subjects whose futures were doomed and whose passions were choked by an oppressive discipline.

Durkheim's theory of suicide has been subjected to searching criticisms. Durkheim has given importance to the social factors in suicide and has reduced the importance of other factors. Durkheim's theory of suicide is said to be more supported by argument than by fact.

This theory is based upon incomplete statistics dealing with only small numbers many objections are raised to Durkheim's study of Suicide, but still it remains a classics work whose relevance to sociology is by no means exhausted today.

26.     Note on Endogamous & Exogamous marriage.

Endogamous Marriage

In this marriage the individuals marry within their own tribe, Varna, caste, sub-caste class, race religion etc. The probable causes of the prevalence of this type of marriage are preserving and maintain the group secrets of sacrament and skills, the desire to live separate! From others, to maintain the purity of blood etc. No doubt, endogamous marriage strength the unity within the group but at long run is harmful to national integration. It leads to groupism and other social problems like marital maladjustment dowry, bride price etc.

Exogamous marriage:

Exogamous marriage is just opposite to endogamous marriage. In this marriage individual has to marry outside his our group like gotra, pravar, sapinda or village.

Both the endogamous and exogamous type of marriage exist is some societies. For example, in India the member of a caste is expected to select his or her life partner from within his/her cast/tribe and outside one's own gotra or totem.

c) On the basis of preference:

Most of the societies put some restrictions on marriage between the kins. However, in some other society’s marriage is socially approved between a limited number of kins, in the said societies marriage is sanctioned between them on the basis of priority or preference! Hence when marriage between kins is socially sanctioned the said type of marriage is known as preferential marriage.

2) Levirate:

It is a type of preferential marriage in which a man marries the window of his deceased

Brother.

3) Sororate:

It is another system of preferential marriage in which man marries his wife's sister. It is two types -junior sororate and senior sororate. When a man marries his wife's younger sister, it is called junior sororate. On the other hand if the marriage is with the elder sister of his wife then it called as senior sororate.

27.  What are the merits and demerits of Polyandry?

Merits of polyandry:

The merits of polyandry are as follow:-

1) Firstly, Polyandry controls the growth of population in the society.

2) Secondly, it avoids the division of family property, common houses and maintains unity and integrity of the family.

3) Thirdly, it fosters us feeling among the members of the family.

4) Fourthly, it may strengthen economic status of the family.

Demerits of polyandry:

Following are the demerits of polyandry:

1) Firstly, polyandry may lead to extra-marital relation, as all the husbands will not be satisfied by a wife.

2) Secondly, a woman has to satisfy the sexual urge of several husbands that may have serious effect on her health.

3) Thirdly, the woman may suffer several general diseases.

4) Fourthly, Polyandry sometimes leads to the problem of sterility or barrenness.

5) Fifthly, it causes harm to married life and gives rise to several psychological problems.

28. How human development is essential of social development ?  

1. It was observed that despite economic achievements, the living standard of the masses remained largely unchanged.

2. It was realised that the economic development alone cannot promote human development.

3. Consequently the concept of human development got expended beyond economic development.

4. Human development is the process of both quantitative change and qualitative growth.

5. As a result the concept of Gross Domestic Product was enlarged to encompass the elements of human happiness.

6. The concept of human development was taken into a broader perspective while touching upon social, economic, political and cultural aspects of human life with special emphasis on reduction in poverty and narrowing down the gap of inequality and unemployment. It galvanised the socio-economic structure for people's development.

7. The concept of human development embraces all aspects of human life and not just the economic aspect. Here the utilisation effect of income is important and not the income itself.

8. Human development is the end whereas social development and economic growth are the means to it.

9. But the importance of economic growth among all contributory factors of development is paramount. It enlarges human skills, widens their choices and develops humans as resources which in turn again influences economic development.

29. What is the importance of cooperation in the processes of social interaction?

Cooperation is an associative and basic process of social life. Society cannot exist without this. It is the very basis of social existence. It is one of the continuous social processes. The term 'Co-operation' is derived from the two Latin words 'Co' meaning together and 'Operari' meaning to work. Literally, Co­operation means 'joint work' or 'working' together' for a common goal'.

Merrill and Hdredge says, 'Co-operation is a form of social interaction wherein two or more persons work together to gain a common end.'

According to Fairchild "Co-operation is the process by which the individuals or groups combine their effort, in a more or less organized way for the attainment of common 'objective'.

From the above definitions, two characteristics of co-operation become clear. They are:

1. Organised effort.

2. Common end

There are difference of opinion among the sociologists regarding the types of co-operation. Mac Iver and Page speak of two types of co-operation. They are -

1. Direct co-operation.

2. Indirect co-operation.

1. Direct Co-operation:

Direct co-operation implies direct relationship among the individuals. In this type of co-operation, people do like things together. In other words, when people directly co-operate with each other for the achievement of a common goal it is called direct co-operation. Playing together, working together, worshiping together, ploughing the field together, traveling together and so on are some of the examples of direct co-operation.

2. Indirect Co-operation:

Indirect co-operation is just, the opposite of direct co-operation. In indirect co-operation people do different tasks towards a similar end. In other words, in this type of co-operation people work individually for the attainment of a common goal and this is based on the principle of division of labor and specialization of functions. For example, in a college the principal, lecturers, office assistants, accountant, typist, librarian and dispatcher perform different functions but they make co-operative effort towards a common goal.

A.W. Green has divided co-operation into three types such as

1. Primary, Co-operation.

2. Secondary Co-operation.

3. Tertiary Co-operation.

1. Primary Co-operation:

Primary co-operation is generally found in the primary group, children's play group and so on. Primary co-operation is that type of co-operation in which there is no selfish interest. Every member works for the betterment of all. Thus primary relation leads to primary co-operation,

2. Secondary Co-operation:

Secondary co-operation is that type of co-operation in which an individual co-operates with others for the achievement of some selfish interests. Secondary co­operation is the characteristic of modern industrial society, which is mostly found in secondary groups such as social, economic, religious and political group where work is based on division of labor and specialization of functions. Secondary co-operation does not provide equal benefit to all the members. Each may work in co-operation with others for his own status, power and prestige.

3. Tertiary Co-operation:

In tertiary co-operation, different groups make mutual adjustment with each other under certain compelling circumstances. Tertiary co-operation is purely voluntary in nature. People or groups co-operate with each other according to their sweet will. The attitudes of the co-operating parties or groups in the field of tertiary co-operation are very opportunistic and selfish. For instance, when two political parties of different ideologies are co-operative together to defeat their rival party in an election, it is known as tertiary co-operation.

4. Role of Co-operation

Co-operation is so important in human life that it is difficult for man to survive without it. Co­operation is the foundation on which our social life is built up. Without active co-operation of fellow beings, a man cannot lead a happy and comfortable life. In a family without active co-operation of wife, a man cannot lead a happy conjugal life; Man cannot fulfill his basic needs like food, clothing and shelter without co-operation. Progress in science, technology, art, literature depends upon co­operation. Co-operation brings all round development of individual as well as of society. Without this, the very existence of human society is impossible.

30. Brief note on the meaning of social power. What are factors that determine social process in society ?

Social power is a universal aspect of social interaction. It plays an important role in shaping relations among the members of a group. In groups some members are more powerful than others and this fact has important consequences for a group functioning. Further all forms of social interaction involve differences in the relative power of the participants to influence one another. Thus power differences enter into determining the relations between father and child, employer and employee, politician and voter teacher and student.

Meaning and definition of power

Kingsley Davis defines power as "the determination of behavior of others in accordance with one's own ends." According to Sheriff :power denotes the relative weights of behavior by member in a group structure."

Weber has defined power as the probability that one actor. (individual or group) within a social relationship in a position to carry out his own will despite resistance, regardless of the basis on which this probability rests. He goes on to say "All conceivable qualities of a person and all combination of circumstances may put him in a position to impose his will in a given situation. These definitions show that power is a broad concept.

In general it means the ability to influence the behavior of the other person. But power need not be considered equivalent which influence without any regard to the situation in which it occurs. A new born infant can influence the behavior of his parents. A stranger on the street can inference the action of others by calling out "Look out for the bus". But this influence is not equivalent with power in group functioning. The important element in the definitions of power is group functioning. The important element in the definitions of power is the ability to determine the behavior of others in accordance with one's own wishes despite opposition.

According to Green "Power is simply the extent of capability to control others so that they will do what they are wanted to do." Lundberg and others also say, By power we mean the extent to which persons or groups can limit or regulate the alternative courses of action open to other persons or groups with or without their consent."

Power may be exercised blutantly or subtly, legally or illegally, justly or unjustly. It may be derived from many sources such as wealth, status, prestige, numbers or organizational efficiency. Its ultimate basis however is the ability to compel obedience if necessary through the threat or use of force.

Social power has been identified in different ways with prestige, influence, eminence, competence, dominance, rights, strength force and authority.

(i) Power and prestige are closely linked, as Ross said, The class that has the most prestige will leave the most power. It can be said that the powerful groups tend to be prestigious and prestigious group powerful.

(ii) Knowledge, eminence, skill and competence all contribute to prestige but they need not necessarily accompany power. If all power is accompanied by these factors then the association is only incidental.

(iii) Power and dominance are also to be distinguished. Power is a sociological and dominance a psychological phenomenon. The laws of power is in both person and groups and in important cases it is in the latter. But dominance is a function of personality or of temperament. It is a personal trait. It is also possible to find dominant individuals playing roles in powerless groups and submissive individuals playing roles in powerful ones. Power is one thing and dominance quite another.

(iv) Power and Rights - Rights are more closely associated with privileges and with authority than they are with power. A right is one of the prerequisites of power and not power itself. One may have right without the power to exercise it. The man who has the power rarely waits for the right to use it. A right always requires some support in the right to social structure. No individual can successfully claim a right that is unrecognized in the law and non existent in the modes. Right in general like privileges, duties, obligation, responsibilities etc. are attached to the statuses whereas power does not necessarily require the backing of the status.

(v) Power, Force and Authority- Power is not force and power is not authority but it is related to both. As Robert Bierstedt said, "Power is talent force. Power is the prior capacity that makes the use of force, force is manifesto power and authority is institutionalized possible. Only groups that have power can threaten to use "force and the threat the itself is power. Power is the ability to use force not its actual employment. Power is always successful when it is not successful it causes to be power. Power thus symbolizes the force that may be applied in any social situation and supports the authority that is applied. Power is thus neither force nor authority but it makes both force and authority possible says Robert Bierstedt.

Factors that determine social power in the society :

Social power is a universal aspect of social interaction. It plays an important part in shaping relations among the members of a group. Power differences enter into determining the relations between father and child, employer and employee, politician and voter, teacher and student.

According to K. Davis power is the determination of the behavior of others in accordance with one's own ends.

Sheriff and Sheriff say, "Power denotes the relative weights of behavior by member in a group structure".

E.A. Ross says, "Power is a certain kinds of human relationship."

From the above definitions, it is clear that power is a very broad concept. In general, it means the ability to get one's wishes carried out despite opposition, if any. It. is not necessary that a man who has power in one situation will be powerful in all the situations. A father may have power to impose his will on his children but he may have no power to influence the behavior of his employer.

Thus a man is powerful in one situation may be powerless in other situations.

There are some bases from which power originates. These are called as bases of power:

(a) Wealth

Wealth plays an important role in creation of base for power. In capitalistic society, power is determined through wealth. It is also a fact that those people who have more wealth are more powerful in the society. He gets more respect, high position in society.

(b) Power:

Power creates more power. A powerful person by exercising his power becomes more powerful. Therefore, power acts as the base of power.

(c) Outstanding skill

Persons who have outstanding skill are different from a common man. An artist through his art influences the behavior of others. Therefore, outstanding skill acts as a base of social power.

Kinds or types of power - Lunberg and others have mentioned three kinds of power.

1. Coercive power

2. Utilitarian power

3. Identitive power.

The coercive power is that power which uses or threatens the use of physical means to obtain compliance. The utilitarian power uses material rewards. The identitive power uses symbol that are not physical threats nor material rewards but which influence people to identify with the organization, viewing its interests their own.

On the basis of influence power can be classified in to three types

(a) Force

(b) Domination

(c) Manipulation.

The person influences the behavior of others through physical force is called force. When power is exercised through order or advice, it is of domination type. For example, the power of teacher over the students is domination power. When a person influences the behavior of others without telling his own intentions is known as manipulation, e.g - propaganda or advertisement.

From legal point of view power has been classified into two types:

1. Legitimate power

2. Illegitimate power

Legitimate power may be of three kinds:

They are:

(a) Legal power

(b) Traditional power

(c) Charismatic power

Legal power is the power given by the law and the constitution of the country, for example the power of the army or the police. Customs and traditions of the society are called traditional power. For example, the power of parents or the teachers is traditional power. The source of charismatic power lies in some peculiar quality. For example, the power of ‘religious guru’ likes Sai Baba over his followers. Illegitimate power is one, which is not recognized by the society. For example, the power of dacoits is an example of illegitimate power.

A democratic social order is totally rests upon power structure. There is submission to overall power in democratic as well as authoritarian society. The majority submit to over all power because they have no alternative. Throughout most of the, part a majority have submitted, obeyed blindly and suffered a continual injury. Overthrow of the holders of power has been rare. Once established every power structure tends to continue because of habit and inertia as well as indoctrination.

31. What is Social control (formal and informal). Agencies of social control. Importance of social control.  

Different sociologists have given different opinions regarding the means of social control. F.E. Lumley classified the means of social control into major categories; based upon force and based upon symbols. According to him, though physical force in indispensable in social control, yet, it is not merely the force that can manage the individuals. Human societies have to rely upon symbolic devices, which are more effective than force. According to him, the means of social control are rewards, praise, flattery, education, persuasion, gossip, satire, criticism, propaganda and so on.

E.A. Ross has described a number of means of social control that have been employed by social groups through out the human history to keep individuals under control. The important among them are public opinion, law, custom, religion, morality, folkways and modes.

E.C.Hayes distinguished between control by sanctions and control by suggestion in imitation. By control, by sanctions he meant a system of rewards and punishments. According to him, education is the most effective means of social control.

Karl Mannheim distinguished between direct and indirect means of social control. Kimhall Young classified the means of social control into positive and negative means. According to him, reward is a positive means while punishment is a negative means. L.L. Bernard distinguished between conscious and unconscious means of social control. The most important unconscious means are custom, tradition and convention. The conscious means of social control are those, which have been consciously developed and employed by leaders of all types. These are law, education, public opinion and coercion.

Bernard also distinguished between destructive and constructive means of social control. Exploitive means are such as punishment, reprisals, intimidation and repression. Among the constructive means are included revolution, custom, law, education, social reform and non-violent coercion.

But most of the sociologists have classified the means of social control into types such as informal means and formal means. These are traced out below:

1. Informal Means

The informal means of social control grow themselves in society. No special agency is required to create them. The Brahmins do not take meat. They take meals only after bath. The Jains do not take curd. They take their dinner before sunset. The Hindu women do not smoke. One can marry only in one's caste. The children should respect their parents. All this is due to informal social control. It is exercised through customs, traditions, folkways, modes, religion, ridicule etc. Informal control prevails over all the aspects of man's life.

However, it is said that people are not afraid of informal social control. Yet informal means of social control are very powerful particularly in primary groups. No man wants to suffer loss of prestige. He does not want to become the target of ridicule. He does not want to be laughed at by the people. He does not want to be socially boycotted. On the other hand, he wants praise, appreciation, honor and recognition by the society. Thus, informal means, like praise, ridicule, boycott etc. effectively control his behavior. Moreover, the child through the process of socialization learns to conform to the norms of group. A person with socialized attitudes would not do any work, which is socially harmful. Thus, socialization also exercises an influence over him.

Now we may describe briefly the important means of informal control.

(I) Belief- Belief is a conviction that a particular thing is true. It is primarily of five kinds.

(a) The belief in the existence of an unseen power;

(b) The belief in the theory of Ye-incarnation,

(c) The belief in Nemesis, the Goddess of Vengeance,

(d) The belief in the existence of hell and heaven and,

(e) The belief in the immortality and soul.

All these different beliefs influence man's behavior in society. The first belief in the existence of an unseen power leads a man to right actions because he believes that his actions are being watched by an unseen power. The second belief in the theory of reincarnation keeps the man away from wrongful acts because he believes that in order to have a good birth in next he must do good, acts in this life. The third belief in the Goddess of Vengeance also regulates man's behavior because he believes that he will be punished by the goddess of Vengeance for his sins. A sinner is punished here and now. The Fourth belief in the existence of hell and heaven influences a man to virtuous acts and avoid sins in order to go to heaven or avoid going to hell after death. Heaven is place full of luxuries, fairies and romance. Hell is a place of terror, miseries and tortures. The fifth belief in the immortality of soullend man to avoid such actions as will cause pain to the soul of the deceased ancestors.

In this way, beliefs are powerful influences on human actions. They are vital for human relations. They define the purposes and interests for the individual and control his choice of means so that the purposes of the groups may be advanced of at least not hundred. No aspect of social relationship escapes them. Beliefs may be false. They may be founded on factual or faculty evidence. But the question of their validity does not necessarily determine their effectiveness of social controls, we act with as much determination from false beliefs as from factually second ones.

Social Suggestions:

Social suggestions are also powerful means of social control. Suggestion is the indirect communication may be made through various methods. The first method is putting the life examples of great men. We celebrate the anniversaries of Mahatma Gandhi and Lal Bahadur Sastri, We build monument in the memory of great men. We place their ideals before the people and exhort them to follow these ideas. The second method of making suggestion is through literature Books, Journals, newspapers etc. may inspire people to heroic deeds and develop in them national feeling. The literature may also make people narrow minded conservative and superstitious. These types of literature will indirectly influence his mind and consequently his behavior. The third method is through education. The educational curriculum may communicate certain ideas to the students and make them discipline citizens. The fourth method is through advertisement. Many magazines carry beautiful advertisements depicting the advantages of visiting certain places and suggesting the prestige attached to traveling to these places. The advertisements from Radio. Ceylon may attract the people to Binaca toothpaste. Many of our business enterprises employ advertising to influence-attitudes and therefore, action. Suggestions may be conscious or unconscious. It may also be intentional or unintentional.

Ideologies:

Ideology is a theory of social life, which interprets social realities from the point of view of deals to prove the correctness of the analysis and to justify these ideals. It is the projection of a certain ideal. Leninism, Gandhism and Fascism are ideologies, which have analyzed social realities and laid down an ideal before the people. Ideologies influence social life to a very deep extent. Leninism-had influenced the social life of Russians. Hitler's theory of socialism influenced the German to the extent that they began to regard themselves as the supreme race of the world. Gandhism has influenced social life in India. In the world we today, find a conflict of ideologies. The conflict between U.S.A. and U.S.S.R. is a conflict of capitalism and communism. The history of man has been one of struggle among conflicting ideologies. Ideologies are powerful dynamic forces of contemporary social life. They satisfy the need of all men to believe in a system of though that is rigorous. They express the vital interests of social groups and satisfy their desire for a scheme of social betterment. They stimulate action. They provide a set of values. They are motivators of social action. They make life meaningful. The success of any ideology, as an effective means of social control depends on many factors. Some of these factors are its completeness and coherence, its vision of the future is its ability to hold men's imaginations, its consistency and its ability to meet criticism.

Folkways:

Folkways are the recognized modes of behavior, which arise automatically with a group. They are the behavior patterns of every day life, which arise spontaneously and unconsciously in a group. They are in general the habits of the individual and are common to a group. They are socially approved. They have some degree of traditional sanction. It is not easy for the members of a group to violate the folkways. They are the foundation of group culture. If an individual does not follow them he may be socially boycotted by his group. A particular dress must be worn at a particular function. The Brahmins shall not take meat. The Jains should not take curd. The Hindu women should not smoke. Since folkways become a matter of habit, therefore, these are followed unconsciously and exercise powerful influence over man's behaviour in society.

Modes:

Modes are those folkways, which are considered by the group to be of great significance, rattier indispensable to its welfare. The modes related to the fundamental needs of society more directly than do the folkways. They express the group sense of what is right and conducive to social welfare. They imply a value judgment about the folkways. Modes arc always molding human behavior. They restrain an individual from doing acts considered as wrong by his group. They are the instruments of control. In society, there are innumerable modes like to monogamy, prohibition, endogamy, antislavery etc. Conformity to modes is regarded necessary. It is essential for the members of the group to conform to them. Behavior contrary to them is not permitted by society. Certain modes may even be harmful for the physical well-being of an individual, yet these must be obeyed. Thus, mode control man's behavior in society to a very great extent.

Customs:

Customs are the long established habits and usages of the people. They are those folkways and modes, which have persisted for a very long time and have passed down from one generation to another. They arise spontaneously and gradually. There is no constituted authority to declare them to apply them or to safeguard them. They are accepted by society. They are followed because they have been followed in the past. The importance of custom as a means of social control cannot be minimized. They are so powerful that no one can escape their range. They regulate social life to a great extent. They bind men together. They control the purely selfish impulses. They compel the individual to conform to the accepted standards. They are held so sacred that any violation of them is regarded not only a crime but also a sacrilege. In primitive customs are main agencies of social control but in modern times their force has loosened.

Religion:

Religion also exercises a powerful influence upon man's behavior in society. The term religion has numerous definitions. Religion is an attitude towards super human powers. It is a belief in powers superior to man. It expresses itself in several forms like superstition, animism, totemism, magic ritualism and fetishism. Religion pervades practically in all the societies, though there may be different forms of religious beliefs and practices. The Hindu religion gives great importance to ceremonies. At the time of birth, marriage arid death a number of ceremonies is performed. Mantras are recited even if one does not understand their meaning. Religion is a powerful agency in society. It influences man's behavior. Children should obey their parents, should not tell a lie or cheat, women should be faithful to man, people should be honest and virtuous and should limit one's desires, man should renounce unsocial activities are some of the teaching of religion which influence man's behavior. Men should do good acts is a common teaching of all the religion. Religion makes people benevolent, charitable, forbearing and truthful. It may also be noted that religion may easily be destroyed into superstition and dogmatism instead of being an incentive to ethical idealism. Religion may be, used to make people be used their lot obedience to their rules and defenders of status quo. It may deny freedom of thought. It may favor poverty exploitation and idleness and encourage practices like cannibalism, slavery, untouchability, communalism and even incest.

Art and Literature

Art in its narrow sense includes painting, sculpture, architecture, music and dance. Literature -includes poetry, dream and fiction. Both art and literature influence the imagination and exert control on human behavior. The marital music of the military band arouses feeling of determination and strength. A classical dance creates in us an appreciation of our culture. The statute of Mahatma Gandhi teaches us the virtue of simple living and high thinking. A painting may arouse in us a feeling of sympathy, affection and hatred. There is always a close relationship between the national lives. The civilization of any specified time can be judged by an examination of its arts. Artists have been called an agent of civilization.

Literature also influences human behavior in society. We have 'good' literature and 'bad' literature. A good literature possesses an indefinable quality which makes it live through the ages, Ramayana, Bhagvadgita and Mahabharat are classical work of great social value. On the other hand, detective literature may have its effect on crime. Romantic literature may make the reader passionate while religious literature may make them virtuous or superistituous. Rousseau1 in France has tended the French Revolution. Dickens changed the entire school system in Britain by writing David Copperfield and other of his books. In this way, both art and literature exert control through their influence on the imagination.

Humor and Satire:

Humor is also a means of social control. It assumes various forms depending upon the situation and purpose. It often serves to relieve a tense situation. Sometimes it is used with a bad intention to deflate others without a reason. It also used to gain a favorable response. Humor controls by supporting the sanctioned values of the society. Through cartoons, comics and reports it can support the values of the society in a form that is light in spirit but effective in control.

Satire employs wit and scorn as indirect criticism of actions felt to be vicious and socially harmful. It exposes by ridicule the falsity and danger of behavior. There by it causes the people to give up their vicious and harmful actions.

Public Opinion

The influence of public opinion as a means of social control is greater in simple societies. In a village, the people are known to one another personally. It is difficult for a villager to act contrary to the public opinion of the village. Public opinion greatly influences our actions. For fear of public ridicule and criticism, we do not indulge in immoral antisocial activities. Every individual wants to win public praise and avoid public ridicule or criticism. The desire for recognition is a natural desire. We want count for something in the eyes of our fellowmen. Human praise is the sweetest music. The greatest efforts of the human race are directly traceable to the love of praise. Persons behave according to social norms to win public recognition or at least to avoid public ridicule. Thus, public opinion is one of the strongest forces influencing the behavior of people.

2. Formal Means

Among the formal means of social control, the importance ones are law, education and coercion. A brief explanation of these means follow,

Law:

Law is the most important formal means of social control. Early societies depended upon informal means of social control but when societies grew in size or in complexity, they were compelled to formulate rules and regulations, which define the types of behavior and specify the penalties to be imposed upon those who violate them. Law is a body of rules enacted by legally authorized bodies and enforced by punishments for their violation. The modem societies are large in size. Informal means of social control are longer, sufficient to maintain social order and harmony. Therefore, modern societies had to resort to formal means of social control.

Education:

Along with law, the importance of education as a means of social control is being growingly realized. Education is a process of socialization. It prepares the child, for a social living. It reforms the attitudes wrongly formed by the children already. Thus, a family may make the child superstitious, education will1 correct his beliefs and remove his prejudices. It teaches him value of discipline, social co-operation, tolerance and sacrifice. It instills in him the qualities of honesty, fair play and a sense of right and wrong. The importance, of education for creating right social attitudes among the youth cannot be minimized. It is to note that education in India has miserably failed to create right social attitudes among the youth of the country and act as an effective means, of social control.

Coercion:

Coercion is the use of force to achieve a desired end. It may be physical or non-violent. It is the ultimate means of social control when all other means failed. Physical coercion may take the form of bodily injury, imprisonment and death penalty. Physical coercion is without doubt the lowest form of the social control. Societies would least desire to use it. It may have immediate effects upon the offender but it does not have enduring effects. If a society has to depend on external force, it shows its weakness rather than .strength in social control. Society's best protection lies in the development of its citizens.

Non-violent coercion consists of the strike, the boycott non-co-operation. A person, who threatens to withdraw his support to a friend if he does not give up smoking, is using non-violent coercion to change his action. The students may go on strike to force the principal withholding of social or economic intercourse with others to express disapproval and to force acceptance of demands. A student who teases the girls may be socially boycotted by the other students of the college. Non co-operation is refusal to co-operate. The teachers may refuse to co-operate with the principal for his insulting behavior. Nonviolent coercion can be a successful way of effecting social control. Mahatma Gandhi used it to force the British Government to grant political independence to India.

Important agencies of social control .

There are several agencies of social control. Thai means social control is exercised through various agencies. The important agencies of social control are stated below:

1. Family:

Family is an important agency of social control. It is the first place where an individual is socialized. He learns various methods of living, behavior patterns, convention etc. from the family. He is taught to behave and respect social laws and obey social controls. He learns customs, folkways, traditions and modes from the family. Family influenced the individual directly through suggestion, persuasion, praise, blame, ridicule, criticism etc. Through these, mechanism family forces the individual to conform the custom, folkways and modes of the group.

2. Neighborhood:

Neighborhood is a simple and specific part of a community. It has a feeling or sentiment of local unit. There may be more than one neighborhood in a community. The neighborhood is the first community with which the individual comes into contact with. It exists, a deep influence on its members as an agency of social control. The local neighborhood reinforces or strengthens the individual family as an agency of social control. It comes only after the family in social importance. The elder members of the neighborhood or locality, who are very intimate to one another, keep group modes alive and enforce them in the locality. The local neighborhood like the family, exercises direct control over the behavior of the individuals through direct suggestions, persuasion, praise, blame, ridicule, criticism etc.

3. Church:

Church is regarded as an institutionalized expression of religion. It serves as an agency of social control. In the past church was a powerful agency of social control for quite some time. The church and the priests were held in high esteem. The authority of the church was recognized and accepted by the people. As a result, no body could disobey its order. The church had power to dethrone kings who did not accept its authority during this period.

4. Religion:

Religion serves as an important agency of social control. It is religion, which supports the folkways and modes of a society by playing super natural sanctions behind them. It adopts negative as well as positive means to regulate the behavior of the individuals in society.

5. The School:

The school is a very powerful agency: of social control. It exercises social control through education. The child learns many things from the school, which he cannot learn from other sources. The child is taught to obey the discipline, which a student learns at school lasts with him throughout his life. In the college, also the students are required to obey social controls. The school and college or educational institutions are next to family as agencies of social control. It is the class room the peer group and the leaders who exercise influence on the child for his future role in society. Education in modern times is a very powerful means of social control. It is education, which makes all efforts to discipline the mind of the student in the school so that he can realize the importance of social control.

6. Law:

Law is a powerful method of control. The state runs its administration through the government. It enforces law within its territory with the help of the police, the army, the prison and the court; it enacts laws to regulate the lives of the people. The deviants or the violators of social rules are punished as per law; the state carries out certain function by means of law. E.A. Ross says that 'law is the most specialized and highly furnished engine of social control employed by society. It is law, which prevents the people from indulging in antisocial activities. The lawbreakers are punished by the law of the state. It helps in governing our social conduct and behaviors. Laws are essential in strengthening social control violation of law considered a punishable offence. In short, law is an important formal means of Control to regulate the individual behavior in society.

7. Administration:

Administration is very powerful and the most effective instrument of social control. It forces the individual to obey social control. The administrations punish the violators with the help of the police, the army etc.

8. Force:

Physical force or coercion is an important means of social control. It is ancient as society itself. It is essential for social progress. Even these days some societies resort to it against the deviants or those who disobey social norms. Every state has its own armed forces or police force. It is an effective weapon to prevent people from indulging in anti-social activities. It also makes people, obey social order. The state carries out its functions by means of law, which is ultimately backed by physical force. As an important agency of social, control the state exercises its force over its people through various means such as the government law, administration, the armed forces, the police and the like.

9. Public Opinion:

Public opinion is very powerful in the democratic age. It not only controls the behavior of people but also controls the government. People these days are more concerned with the opinion held by the public. Fear of public opinion in general makes people control their conduct and behavior. The state controls the behavior of the people through public opinion and mould people in favor of its policies. It forms public opinion through various media like the newspaper, cinema, radio, television etc.

10. Propaganda:

Propaganda is a systematic attempt by a individual or individuals to control the attitudes of people through suggestions and consequently, their actions. With the development of means of mass communication, propaganda has become an effective means of social control. The state controls the people through this powerful means of social control namely propaganda.

Importance of social control.

Social control is very essential for every society. Without social control, society as well as individual cannot exist. Therefore, the need of social control is very essential. Social control is necessary for the following reasons.

1. To maintain the old order:

It is necessary for every society or group to maintain its social order and this is possible only when its members behave In accordance with that social order. An important objective of social control is not to maintain the old order. Family helps in the realization of this objective. The aged members of the family enforce their ideas over the children.

2. To establish social unity:

Without social control, social unity would be a mere dream. Social control regulates behavior in accordance with established norms, which brings uniformity of behavior and leads to unity among the individuals. The family maintains its unity because its members behave in similar manner in accordance with family norms.

3. To regulate or control individual behavior:

No two men are alike in their attitudes, ideas, interests and habits. Even the children of the same parents do not have the same attitudes, habits and interests. Men believe in different religions, dress differently, eat different food, marry in different ways and have different ideologies. There are so much differences in the ways of living of the people that at every movement there is the possibility of clash between them. In modern times, this possibility has all the more increased because man has become too self-centered. Social control is necessary to protect social interests and satisfy common need. If social control is removed and individual is left to behave freely, society would be reduced to state of jungle.

4. To provide social sanction:

Social control provides social sanction to the social ways of behavior. There are numerous folkways, modes and customs prevalent in society. Every individual has to follow them. If an individual violets the social norms, he is compelled through social control to observe than. Thus, social control provides sanction to social norms.

5. To check cultural mal-adjustment:

Society is subject to change. New invention, new discoveries and new philosophies continue to take birth in society. The individual has to adjust his behavior to the change-taking place in society. But all the individuals cannot adjust themselves to the new conditions. Some become progressive, others remain conservative. When a person from the village moves into the city, he comes across new cultural standards and it is possible that he may wrongly adjust himself to the new cultural environment. He may become a save of passions, visit bar and pass nights in nightclubs. During this transitional period in his social control, it is very necessary lest he should become a deviant.

32. Brief note on the Associative Processes of Social interaction

In social life, individuals continuously come in contact with one another. They co-operate and compete with one another for their respective interests. They also struggle with each other for their rights. These are the fundamental processes through which men interact and establish relationship with each other in society. Interaction refers to an action done in response to another action. When this interaction repeats itself then it is called as social process.

Society contains hundreds and perhaps thousands of socially defined relationships. It is impossible to make a detailed study of each and every social relationship. The various kinds of social relationships or interaction on processes can broadly be divided into two main-categories: One aspect of social interaction is associative.

The associative processes of social interaction are of positive type of interaction. The associative process is always worked for the integration and benefit of society. These processes bring progress and stability in society. Associative processes are also called as conjunctive processes. The associative processes include co­operation, accommodation, adaptation, adjustment, integration and assimilation. Here we shall discuss about two types of interaction. They are co-operation and accommodation.

1. Cooperation

Co-operation is the first fundamental and associative process of social interaction. The work "Co­operation" has been derived from the two Latin words. 'Co', means 'together' and 'Operate' means 'to work'. Hence, co-operation means working together for the achievement of a common goal or goals.

According to Merril and Eldredge - Co-operation is the continuous and common endeavor of two or more persons to perform a task that is commonly characterized."

Characteristics of Co-operation:

1. Co-operation is one type of social interaction, which takes, place between two or more individuals.

2. Co-operation is a conscious process.

3. Co-operation is an associative process.

4. Co-operation is a personal process.

5. Co-operation is a continuous process.

6. Co-operation is a universal process.

Role and Importance of Cooperation:

Cooperation is indispensable for both society and individual. It creates direct relationship between individual and individual, group and group and between group and individual. It controls the behavior of individual. It brings all round development of society as well as individuals.

2. Accommodation

Accommodation is another associative process of social interaction. Sometimes new conditions and circumstances arise in the society. These new conditions lead to conflict. The resolution of these conflicts is called accommodation. In other words, accommodation is social adjustment.

According to Mac Iver and Page: - "The term accommodation refers particularly to the process in which one can attain a sense of harmony with his environment.

Ogburn and Nirnkoff say, "Accommodation is a term used by the sociologists to describe the adjustment of hostile individuals or groups."

Characteristics of Accommodation:

1. Accommodation is a associative process of social interaction.

2. It is a conscious activity.

3. Accommodation is a universal process.

4. Accommodation is a continuous process.

5. Accommodation is a mixture of love and hate.

Role and Importance of Accommodation:

1. Accommodation maintains peace and security in the society.

2. Accommodation checks conflict, competition and contradiction.

3. Accommodation brings unity and integrity in the society.

4. Accommodation resolves conflict.

33. brief note on dissociative process of social interaction. 

The processes that make special contribution towards social differentiation, antagonism and division are called dissociative processes. The dissociative processes of social interaction are of negative type of interaction.

These are also called disintegration of society. It hinders the progress and development of society. Sociologists say that these processes also strengthen the process of social solidarity. Adam Smith defined the role of competition in the economic activities of production, distribution and consumption. Similarly, the contribution of conflict in social structure has been systematically discussed, by Karl Marx, Coser Dahrendrof, Park and Burgess.

Competition, conflict and mutual opposition are included in dissociative processes.

1. Competition:

Competition is the most fundamental form of social struggle. It is caused by the thing which are in short supply or which is limited. It makes two or more individuals of groups to struggle for some mutually designed end. Competition is a contest among the people or groups to acquire something, which are insufficient in quantity, and not easily available according to one's won demand.

Sutherland, Woodward and Maxwell say that "competition is an impersonal; unconscious, continuous struggle between individuals or groups for satisfaction which because of their limited supply, all may not have."

Biesanz and Biesanz say, "Competition is the striving of two or more persons for the same goal which is limited so that all cannot share it."

Characteristics of Competition:

1. Competition is an impersonal activity. It is not directed, against any individual or group in particular.

2. Competition is an unconscious struggle. Competitors do not know each other.

3. Competition is a continuous process. It never comes to an end.

4. Competition is the most universal process. It is found in every place and at all times.

5. Competition is a means of fulfilling ones desired ends, aspirations.

6. Competition is different from rivalry.

Importance of Competition:

1. Competition assigns individual to proper place. The role and status of the individual is determined by competition.

2. Competition brings economic prosperity in society.

3. Competition leads to technology and scientific process in the society.

4. Competition provides better opportunities to people to satisfy their desire for new experience and better recognition.

5. Competition among persons of equal strength prevents the concentration of power in the hands of an individual or group.

2. Conflict:

Conflict is another dissociative process of social interaction. It is a universal social process. It makes an individual or group to frustrate the efforts of another individual or group of individuals who are seeking the same object. It implies desire for violence and reverence.

According to A.W Green "Conflict in the deliberate attempt to oppose; resist or coerce the will of another or other."

Kingsley Davis says, "Conflict is a modified form of social struggle."

According to H.T. Mazumdar "Conflict is opposition or struggle involving (a) an emotional attitude of hostility as well as (b) violent interference with one's autonomous choice."

Gillin and Gillin say, "Conflict is the social process in which individuals or groups keep their ends by directly challenging the antagonists by violence or the threat of violence.

Characteristics of Conflict:

1. Conflict is a conscious process by which the conflicting parties try to harm each other.

2. Conflict is a personal activity.

3. Conflict is an intermittent process.

4. Conflict is a universal process.

5. Conflict is an emotional process.

Importance of Conflict:

1. Conflict often brings about social unity and oneness among the people.

2. Conflict defines issues.

3. Conflict institutes social change.

4. Conflict destroys the lives and properties of individual.

5. Conflict increases bitterness.

6. Conflict leads destruction and bloodshed.

7. Conflict may lead to outer group tension.

34.          What is the importance of primary group in the development of human personality?

Primary groups are of great individual as well as social importance. They are medium through which we learn our culture. They prepare the individuals to lead a successful social life. They socialize individuals and give proper shape to their personality. Some of the primary groups may secure certain external advantages such as better wages, production efficiency, worker's morale, counseling and guidance and so on. Primary group performs a number of vital functions for me growth and development of individuals in society. Following are the important functions of primary group.

1. Acts as a great humanizing agent:

Primary group-enacts the role of a humanizing agency. Family is the immediate primary group in which a child itself as soon as it is born in the family, peer groups and the neighborhood play an important role in socializing or humanizing the child, primary groups teach the child the social norms, standards, morals, beliefs, values and ideas of the society. They introduce to the child the culture of the society.

2. Development of personality:

C.H. Cooley is of the opinion that the primary group, particularly the family, is the chief molder of the human personality. The primary group is the source of our notions of love, freedom, justice and the like. The qualities of behavior that child picks up during the early years in primary groups find their expression in his adult life.

Fair play, equality, free expression, submission to the will of the group and willingness to sacrifice for it are characteristics of family groups. These have a great impact on the personality development of the individuals. Primary groups mould our opinions, guide our affections, influence our action, and in large measure determine our loyalties.

3. Satisfaction of Psychological needs:

Primary groups, satisfy many psychological needs of the individuals. Individuals get; mental happiness, contentment and security from the primary groups. They get the advantages of, Companionship, sympathy and exchange of thoughts and feelings. They reduce mental tensions and emotional stresses and strains.

4. Strengthens the democratic spirit:

The primary group serves the needs of society. Also primary groups help the individual to acquire basic attitudes towards people, social institutions and the world around him. The attitudes of kindness, sympathy, love, tolerance, mutual help arid sacrifice that provide the cementing force to social structure are developed in the primary groups.

5. Acts as an agent of social control:

From the point of view of society, the primary group acts as an agency of social control. Primary, groups not only provide security to the members but also control their behavior and regulate their relations. For example: family, neighborhood, peers group or friends group control much of the activities of the members.

35.          Complete information on the characteristics and classification of social systems

In simple words, system is an orderly arrangement. For example in a human body ears, eyes, nose, legs, hands, lungs, heart, mind etc. have their own fixed places and are arranged in a particular manner. Each part has its own function to perform. On the basis of these functions they are inter-related with each other and interact upon one another. This organic structure is called organic system.

A social system is an orderly and systematic arrangement of social inter-actions; it is a network of interactive relationships. The constituent parts of social system are individuals. Each individual has a role to play. Each individual influences and influenced by the behavior of others. The behavior of individuals and groups in society is controlled by social institutions. The various groups do not act in an independent and isolated manner. They are the parts of independent whole. They act in accordance with social norms. In the basis of their interactions and inter-relationship, they create a pattern, which is called 'social-system'.

Characteristics of Social System

1. Social system is based on social interaction:

A number of individuals when act and interact, their interactions produce a system, which is called social system. Therefore, social system cannot be created by the action of one individual.

2. The interaction is meaningful:

Meaningless and aimless interactions do not produce social system. Social system is an organization of meaningful interactions.

3. The parts of social system are related on the basis of functional relationship:

Different parts of a system are united to each other on the basis of functional relationship. It is a fact that social system is an arrangement of interdependent and interactive parts.

4. Social system is a unity:

A social system implies order among the interacting units of the system. Social system is a state or condition where the various parts are arranged in an integrated manner.

5. Social system is related with cultural system:

Culture determines the nature and scope of inter-relations and interactions of the members of society. It also maintains a balance and harmonious relationship among different parts and reduces conflict among the various parts. Therefore, social-system is closely related with cultural system.

6. Social system related to time factor:

Social system is related to a particular age, a definite territory and a particular society. Social system is, not same in all ages. Social system changes with change, in times. It is dynamic not static. Change in social system does not mean that social equilibrium is lost. Inspite of social changes; social system continues to exists.

Classification of Social System

Morgan and other evolutionists have classified social systems on the basis of, evolution. According to them social system has passed through three-stages-

1. Savagery

2. Barbarian

3. Civilized

On the basis of means of livelihood they have also classified social system into four categories. They are -

1. Hunting social system

2. Pastoral social system

3. Agricultural social system

4. Industrial social system

Durkheim has described two kinds of social systems. They are:

1. Mechanical social system

2. Organic social system

Sorokin has classified the cultural system into three kinds. They are:

1. Sensate

2. Ideational

3. Idealistic

Pre-requisites of a social system

A social-system functions effectively if there is harmony in system. A tension ridden social system cannot function efficiently. Just an organism works as a healthy body if there is no disorder in its parts,- similarly a social system can function efficiently only if there is order among its parts. The essential pre-requisites of a healthy social system are-

1. Biological Pre-requisites:

(a) Adequate number of people -

There should be adequate number of people in a social system so that it may function efficiently. But over population is an evil. Therefore the number of people should neither too less nor too, more.

(b) A definite system of procreation-

A social system should ensure-a definite system of procreation to maintain its continuity.

2. Functional Pre-requisites:

(a) Obedience to social norms-

Every social system has some norms. Norms are the socially approved ways of behavior which members of society are required to observe. It these are violated social system cannot function efficiently.

(b) Social Control -

Social system has the mechanism of social control. Conformity to social norms is very much essential for every social system. Therefore, it is essential that requisite mechanisms be provided whereby the individuals may be compelled to observe the norms.

(c) Interest towards positive action -

The actors in social system should willingly accept the social system. They should not have resentment against it. Even they should have keen interest towards it.

3. Cultural Pre-requisites:

(a) Language -

Without language no social system can operate. Therefore, the members of a social system should possess a meaningful language to communicate and express themselves.

(b) Symbols -

A symbol is an object representing an invisible abstract and inaudible object. A symbol must not be arbitrary but must be natural. It must convey as well as illuminate the idea.

(c) System of Communication -

Every social system should have a system of communication. Interaction acts through communication. The means of communication may be language, symbol, script, gesture, telephone etc.

36. Complete information on the meaning and characteristics of social stratification

Differentiation is the law of nature. It is true in the case of human society. Human society is not homogeneous but heterogeneous. Men differ from one another in many respects. Human beings are equal as far as their bodily structure is concerned. But the physical appearance of individuals, their intellectual, moral, philosophical, mental, economic, political and other aspects are different. No two individuals are exactly alike. Diversity and inequality are inherent in society. Hence, human society is everywhere stratified.

All societies arrange their members in terms of superiority, inferiority and equality. The vertical scale of evaluation, this placing of people in layers is called stratification. Those in the top stratum have more power, privilege and prestige than those below. Thus, stratification is simply a process of interaction of differentiation whereby some people come to rank higher than others are.

Definition of Social Stratification:

According to Ogburn and Nimkoff ''The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in a more or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification".

Gisbert says, "Social stratification is the division of society into permanent groups of categories linked with each other by the relationship of superiority and sub-ordination"

Melvin M. Tumin defines social stratification and refers to arrangement of any social group or society into a hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard to power, property, and social evolution and of psychic gratification".

According to Lundberg, "A stratified society is one marked by inequality by differences among people that are evaluated by them is being 'lower' and 'higher'.

According to Raymond W. Murry ''Social stratification is a horizontal division of society into 'higher' and lower' social units".

Characteristics of Social Stratification:

According to M.M..Tumin the main attributes of stratification are follows".

1. It is Social:

Stratification is social in the sense it does not represent biologically caused inequalities. It is true that such factors as strength, intelligence, age and sex can often serve as the basis of strata are distinguished. But such differences by themselves are not sufficient to explain why some statuses receive more power, property and prestige than others. Biological traits do not determine social superiority and inferiority until they are socially recognized and give importance. For example the manager of an industry attains a dominant position not by his strength nor by his age but by having the socially defined traits. His education, training skills, experiences, personality, character etc. are found to be more important than his biological qualities.

Further as Tumin has pointed out, the stratification system

(i) is governed by social norms and sanctions,

(ii) is likely to be unstable because it may be disturbed by different factors and

(iii) is intimately connected with the other system of society such as practical family, religious, economic, education and other institutions.

2. It is Ancient:

The stratification system is quite old. According to historical and archaeological records, stratification was present even in the small wandering bands. Age and sex were the main criteria of stratification then, women and children last was probably the dominant rule of order. Difference between the rich and poor, powerful and humble, freemen and slaves was there in almost all the ancient civilizations. Ever since the time of Plato and Kautilya social philosophers have been deeply concerned with economic, social and political inequalities.

3. It is Universal

The stratification system is a worldwide phenomena. Difference between the rich and the poor or the 'haves' and the 'have nots' is evident everywhere. Even in the non-literate societies stratification if very much present. As Sorokin has said, all permanently organized groups are stratified.

4. It is in Diverse Forms:

The stratification system has never been uniform in all the societies. The ancient Roman society was stratified into two strata-the partricians and the plebians. The ancient Aryan society into four Varnas the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and the Sudras, the ancient Greek society into freemen and slaves, the ancient Chinese society into the mandarins, merchants, farmers and the soldiers and so on. Class, caste and estate seem to be the general forms of stratification to be found in the modern world. But stratification system seems to be much more complex in the civilized societies.

5. It is Consequential:

The stratification system has its own consequences. The most important, most desired, and often the scarcest things in human life are distributed unequally because of stratification. The system leads to main kinds of consequences.

(i) Life chances and

(ii) Life-style refers to such things as infant mortality, longevity, physical and mental illness, childlessness, marital conflict, separation and divorce. Life-styles include such matters as the mode of housing residential area, ones education means or recreation relationship between the parents and children, the kind of books, magazines and TV shows to which one is exposed ones mode of conveyance and so on. Life chances are involuntary while life-styles reflect differences in preferences tastes and values.

37.  What are factors responsible for socialization process?

Socialization as said above is the process of learning group norms, habits and ideals. There are four factors of this process of learning. These are imitation, suggestion, identification and language. A brief description of these four factors is necessary.

Imitation:

Imitation is copying by an individual of the actions of other Mead defines it as self-conscious assumption of another's acts or roles. Thus when the child attempts to walk impressively like his father swinging a stick and wearing spectacles he is imitating. Imitation may be conscious or unconscious, spontaneous or deliberate, perceptual or ideational, imitation. The person imitating performs exactly the some activity as the one being performed before him.

Imitation is the main factor in the process of socialization of the child. Through it he learns many social behavior patterns. The child is compared to adult possesses the greatest capacity for imitation. Language and pronunciation are acquired by the child only through imitation. It is because of the tendency to imitate that children are so susceptible to the influence of their parents and friends whose behavior they imitate indiscriminately.

Suggestion:

According to Mc. Dougall, suggestion is the process of communication resulting in the acceptance with connections of the communicated proposition in the absence of logically adequate grounds for its acceptance. Suggestion is the process of communicating information, which has no logical or self-evident basis. It is devoid of rational persuasion. It may be convoged through language, pictures or some similar medium.

Suggestion influences not only behavior with others but also one's own private and individual behavior. In trade, industry, politics, education and every other field people acquainted with psychological facts make use of suggestions to have, their ideas and notions accepted by other people and to make the latter behave according to their wishes. Actually, propaganda and advertising are based on the fundamental psychological principles of suggestion.

The suggestibility of the child is greater than that of the adult because in childhood he is devoid of maturity and reason. The suggestibility of an individual decreases with an increase in his maturity and mental level. It may be however necessary to keep in mind that there can be a difference in the suggestibility of children belonging to different society and also the same society.

There are several external and internal conditions, which enhance suggestibility. Thus, temperament, intellectual ability, ignorance, inhibition, dissociation, emotional excitement and fatigue are some of the internal conditions of suggestibility. Among the external condition, mention may be made of group situation, prestige of the suggested and public opinion.

3. Identification:

In his early age, the child cannot make distinction between his organism and environment. Most of his actions are random. They are natural reaction of which he is not conscious. As he grows in age, he comes to know of the nature of things, which satisfy his needs. Such things become the object of his identification. Thus, the toy with which he plays, the picture book, which he enjoys or looking and the mother who feeds him become the object of his identification. The speed and area of identification increases with the growth in age. Through identification he becomes sociable.

4. Language:

Language is the medium of social intercourse. It is the means of cultural transmission. At first the child utters some random syllables which have no meaning, but gradually he comes to learn his mother-tongue.

38. Discuss the various theories of origin of social stratification.

There are two main theories concerning the origin of social stratification.

(i) Theory of economic determinism of Karl Marx, which is often referred to as the conflict theory and

(ii) The functionalist theory. They are stated below.

1. Conflict Theory

According to Karl Marx economic factors are responsible for the emergence of difference in social strata or social classes. Therefore social stratification defined by their relation to the means of production i.e. by their ownership or non-ownership. Thus, there are in every society two mutually conflicting classes the class of the capitalists and the class of the workers or the rich and the poor. Since these two classes have mutually opposite interests, conflicts between the two are inevitable mark maintained.

Gumplocer, Oppenheimer and others have argued that the origin of social stratification is to be found in the conquest of one group by and the conquering group normally dominates the conquered. The conquered group is forced to accept the lower state and class II. North also has expressed more or less the same opinion.

2. Functionalist Theory

Kingsley Davis; P.A. Sorokin, Mac Iver and others have rejected the conflict theory or Mark Sorokin maintained that conflict may facilitate stratification but has never originated it. He attributed social stratification mainly to inherited individual, differences in environmental conditions.

Kingslay Davis has stated that the stratification system is universal. According to him it has come into being due to the functional necessity of the social system. The main functional necessity is the requirement faced by any society of placing and motivating individuals in the social structure. Social stratification is an unconsciously evolved device by which societies ensure that the most important positions are consequently filled by the most qualified persons.

The conflict theory of Max emphasizes conflict between large and stable groups with strong community sentiments, while the Functional Theory emphasizes the integrating function of social stratification based upon individual merit and reward. Both have their own merits and demerits.

39.  Define social mobility and its types. Detailed answer.

Social stratification is a characteristic of all society. We have also seen that classes and individuals are rated high or low on the basis of characteristics possessed by them according to the social value scale. Any change in the value scale or any change in the characteristics results in a change in the status of different classes.

Thus, different occupations are held in different degrees of esteem in different societies or within the society at different times. The members of the priestly class were at one time rated higher than the members of the other classes in India. But today it is not so. A doctor or engineer enjoys greater-prestige than a priest. Likewise, if a person becomes a minister from an ordinary shopkeeper, his status is also enhanced. On the other hand, if the minister loses his job and comes to his old shop, the status enjoyed by him as a minister is lost. Thus, it is seen that people in society continue to move up and down in the status scale. This movement is called social mobility. Mobility is to be distinguished from migration, which is a movement in geographical space.

Mobility has been classified as 'Horizontal Mobility' and 'Vertical Mobility'. Horizontal Mobility refers to change of residence of job without status change, such as a teacher's leaving one school to work in another or even in a factory as a Welfare Officer. "Vertical Mobility" refers to movement in any or all of the three areas of living class, occupation and power. An individual's mobility, up or down is a measurement of how is achieved status compares with his ascribed status.

Social change is natural phenomenon and the moment there is also social mobility. Probably no society absolutely forbids social mobility and no society is immobile. If, for example, we wished to have each caste occupying the same status generation after generation on a uniform rate of population replacement would be necessary in every caste. But as the law of nature is, some castes expand in population while other contract. For those that expand, some new occupations must be found while for those who contract; replacements from other castes must be had. Thus, differences in population, increase or decrease of various castes make social immobility impossible.

Likewise, geographical adaptations require social adaptation. There is constant change in the physical setting of society. As population grows, forests are depleted and fields eroded to provide more housing accommodation. New calamities and disease appear. New economic and political development takes place. Naturally, the social system must adjust itself to the changing physical conditions and such adjustment inevitably entails a certain amount of social mobility.

Further, every society allows, some scope for personal ambition. Had it not been so there would have been no progress. In every system, there are different awards for different achievements and man makes an effort for that kind of achievement that is most rewarded. The belief that individual can get a head legitimately by their own efforts is basis for social progress. The social scale is related to and based on a scale of values. Any group that improves its standards will also improve its social status. And inevitably some groups will strive to improve themselves. Thus the very system of different values for different characteristics itself induces people to move up the side of social status.

Among the factors that make some amount of mobility inevitable in any society. Henry M. Johnson lists the following ones as important.

(i) Social prestige ultimately depends upon the accepted value system. If certain qualities of achievements are socially valued, some people will strive for them.

(ii) There is no constant tendency for intelligence and other kinds of native capacity to be confined to upper classes. It has not been uncommon for the sons of farmers and labourers to rise by highest position in society.

(iii) At varying rates of speed changes are always occuring in the demand for different kind of skill.

(iv) The birth rate of each class never exactly fills all the positions in the class.

(v) Birth in upper classes sometimes fosters complacency in many person.

Thus we may infer that despite the hindering factor of inequality of opportunity occurs in every society, Sociogists study social mobility in order to ascertain the relative "openness of a social structure". The greater the amount of social mobility, the more opens the class structure.

Amount of Mobility

It may be noted that mobility may be downward or upward. Downward mobility is permitted in every society. If a member, of an upper class fails to live upto the class he will fall below the class status. In India, by marrying someone of another caste, especially a lower one. As regards upward mobility, no society absolutely forbids it but the amount and case of upward mobility will depend upon certain factors. Among these the following ones may be noted.

1. Social change

In general the principal condition that favors or prevents mobility is the rate of social change conditions of rapid social change such as the Industrial Revolution or territorial expansion make for social nobility, while a period is very little for the individual to rise out of the status which, is ascribed to him. It may be; noted that political, economic, religious or other revolutions may produce rapid social mobility so as to reduce the upper class to the bottom of social scale and to elevate to the top classes formerly at the bottom.

2. Communication

The system that limits communication between classes and restricts knowledge of the conditions of life to one's own class will also tend to discourage social mobility conversely a system through which members of all classes become familiar with the conditions of life in other classes, facilitates, mobility of course, the extend of mobility will be determined by the opportunities and needs that exist. Indifferent classes and the traditions against the meeting members of another class.

3. The Division of labor

Finally, the amount of social mobility is influenced by the degree of division of labor that exists in a society. If the division of labor is very highly developed and if the degree of specialization and skilled training is very high it is correspondingly difficult for a person from one class to pass readily into other classes, similarly the sharply defined castes that have been assigned certain traditional functions may be related to social mobility despite the fact that other condition are favorable for social movement.

Here it may be emphasized that the economic progress is the most important factor in determining the rate of mobility in any country. Economic progress is associated with industrialization is associated with a higher rate of mobility.

40. Define Sociology, its scope, why sociology as science, and what are characteristics of sociology ?

Definition and scope:

The term, sociology has been derived from the Latin word, 'Societas' or 'Socius' meaning society or associate and the Greek word, 'Logos' meaning theory or study or science. Etymologically, then, sociology human society or of human association. The term, sociology is not very old. Its origin can be traced to recent past. It was coined by Auguste Comte (1798-1857) the French Philosopher and sociologist in 1833. He introduced it to designate the science of human association. Now it has been regarded as a specialized field of study.

For a clear understanding of what sociology deals with and of its field of investigation, we would do well to examine some important definitions of sociology given by eminent sociologists, out their opinion is divided on its scope and subject matter. There are as many definitions of sociology as there are sociologists. All of them have discussed sociology from their own viewpoints. They have emphasized on one aspect or the other, depending upon their understanding and interest and few important definitions are given below.

Gillin and Gillin says that in its broadest sense sociology may be described as the study of interaction arising from the association of living beings.

Mac Iver and Page say that sociology is about social relationships, the network of social relationship we call society.

M. Glinsberg thinks that sociology is the study of human interaction and inter-relations, their conditions and consequences.

Ferdinand Tonnies holds the view that 'Sociology on the whole is the theory of human living together'.

Kimball Young believes that "Sociology deals with the behavior of man in groups."

J.F. Cuber is of the opinion that "Sociology is a body of scientific knowledge about human relationship".

R.E. Park and F.W. Burgess feel that "Sociology is the science of collective behavior".

A.W. Green defines sociology as "the synthesizing and generalizing science of man in all his social relationship",

L.T. Hobhouse defines it as "the study of the interaction of human mind".

There are many definitions of sociology in addition to the ones already mentioned above. These definitions indicate that sociologists differ from one another in their views on sociology. Some sociologists have defined sociology as the science of society cut they do not agree on the meaning of society. Some sociologists think that sociology is the scientific study of social activities or relationship. Others believe that sociology is a study of social life, action, behavior and incidents.

Overall, sociology is the systematic study of society and of the social institutions; it studies them as they are. If is not concerned with their origin and growth. It studies society from scientific point of view. It makes a positive and secular approach to understand the working of the social institutions. Sociology is regarded as a social science which studies society as it is. It studies the group living of human beings. It takes society as an organic whole, discusses the inter-relations of the institutions mat constitute it. It studies society as a whole.

The essence of all the-definitions and viewpoints discussed so far is that sociology is primarily concerned with human social relations, society, its subject matter, but the individual occupies a position of very great significance in its field of investigation. In other words, the individual can by no means be ignored in the study of sociology.

Scope of Sociology:

In order to have a better understanding of the definitions of sociology and its subject matter, it is essential to discuss its scope. Opinion differs on the scope of sociology but there are mainly two important schools of thought about it namely, formalistic school and synthetic school. The first school is led by the German sociologist, George Simmel, Vierkandt, Max Weber and others, where as the second is inspired by the French sociologist, Emile Durkheim, the English sociologist, Hobhouse, P. Sorokin are their followers.

(1) Formalistic or Specialistic School

The sociologists who belong to the formalistic of Specialistics School believe that sociology deals with various forms of human or social relations. They regard sociology as a pure and independent branch of knowledge distinct from all social sciences.

George Simmel

George Simmel, a leading German sociologist considers social science. He feels that it should describe, classify, analyze and explain the several forms of social relationship. It should not be concerned with their contents, which are dealt with by other social sciences. He makes a distinction between the forms of social relationships and their contents and subject matter. In his view, sociology should confine itself to the study of formal behavior and avoid the examination of actual behavior.

It means that the different forms of social relationship and not the relationships between themselves should be the subject of sociology. This viewpoint turns sociology into a science dealing with the same topics as other social sciences, but the topics are judged from a different angle namely, the angle of different forms of social relationships. George Simmel has referred to the several forms of -social relationships such as competition, domination, subordination, division of labor etc. They have an important role to play in different spheres of social life. The spheres being economic, political, religious and the like. It is an important function of sociology to separate these relationships from one another and study them in abstraction.

Vierkandt:

Vierkandt, another leading sociologist holds more or less similar view-point about the scope of sociology. He maintains that sociology is an independent social science or a special branch of knowledge. It should concern itself with the ultimate forms of social or mental relationships, which bind people to one another in society. Sociology should not study concrete societies in detail like history. It should study the irreducible categories of science, which are nothing but ultimate forms of social or mental psychic relationships. These relationships consist in love and hate, attitude of respect, submission, shame, co-operation, competition, the approval of others etc. that bind individuals into groups.

Max Weber:

Max Weber an eminent German sociologist expresses his own viewpoint on the scope of sociology. He says that the scope of sociology consists in interpreting or "understanding" social, behavior. For him social behavior does not refer to entire field of human relation.-He means by social behavior what we call social activity or social action. It is related to the behavior of others and is determined by them. For instance, a bicycle accident is merely a natural phenomenon, the way in which the bicyclists behave with each other after the accident in the form of avoiding or using the language reflects their true social behavior. Sociology is thus concerned with fundamental types of social behavior. In other words, sociology should aim at analyzing and classifying the various types of social behavior or social relationships.

Tonnies, Von Wiese and Small

There are sociologists like Ferdinand Tonnies, Von Wiese and Small who have similar views on the scope of sociology. Tonnies agrees with other sociologists when he says that sociology is an independent and pure social science but he has distinguished society from community on the basis of forms of relationships. Von Wiese is of the opinion that sociology should confine itself to the study of the various forms of social relationships. He has divided these social relationships into different kinds. Small says that sociology should study all activities of society. It should study the genetic forms of social relationship, behavior, activities etc.

Thus, we can safely conclude that the specialistic or formalistic school demands that sociology should be social science dealing with the different forms of social relationships. The sociologist who belongs to this school what the scope of sociology should be delimited.

Criticisms of the formalistic school:

Attempts have been made by sociologists to define the scope of sociology. These attempts are really praise worthy. All the same, the formalistic school is subject to criticism on the following grounds.

(i) The formalistic school has extremely narrowed down the scope of sociology. It states that sociology should study the forms of social relationships. In fact sociology should study not only the forms but also the contents of social life.

(ii) Abstract forms cannot be studied in isolation forms of concrete relations. They should be studied together but the formalistic school makes a distinction between the abstract forms and concrete contents. It states that sociology should not go beyond the study of abstract forms. It should always be bore in mind that abstract forms and concrete relations must be studied together. In reality, social forms cannot be isolated at all from the content, because social forms keep on changing like the contents. No social "form" can exist independent of content. P. Sorokin says that it is impossible to think of a social institution whose form remains unchanged when its content has already changed. In other words, he emphasized on the points that the forms and the contents change at the same time. We cannot say anything without knowing their concrete contents. For instance, the study of competition will he of little profit, if competition is not thoroughly-examined in concrete form in relation to economic life.

(iii) The conception of sociology as a pure and independent social science is to say the least not practicable at all. No sociologist has so far succeeded in contracting sociology as a pure and independent social science. It is not difficult to see that no social science is completely independent of other social sciences. All social sciences are interdependent and inter-related. Therefore, the conception of pure and independent sociology is not practicable.

(iv) All social sciences study the forms of social relationship, but the formalistic school contents that it is sociology, which alone studies the forms of social relationships. This contention is wrong.

(2) Synthetic School:

The synthetic school of thought holds the view that sociology is a synthesis of all social sciences. Sociology is the science of science. It embraces all social sciences within its scope. In other words, it synthesizes them all. There are some modern sociologists like Emile Durkheim, Hobhouse, P. Sorokin and others who share this view.

Emile Durkheim

Emile Durkheim, an eminent French sociologist divides sociology into three principal parts, namely social morphology, social physiology and general sociology. Social morphology has direct reference to all those objects, which are basically or fundamentally geographical or territorial in nature. These objects are of many kinds such as the problems of population, its size, density and local distribution and the like. Social morphology not only analyses the size and quality of population but also examines how population affects the quality, of social relationship and social groups. It also studies the main forms of social groups, institutions and their classifications. Social physiology is very complex and it covers all subjects studied by particular social sciences like religion, economy, language, morals, laws, etc.

It is seen that social sciences like physiology has a number of branches such as sociology of religion, sociology of economic life, sociology of language, sociology of morals and sociology of law. All these branches are regarded as special sociologies, these sociologists to have subject of their own for example, the sociology of religion studies language and so on and so forth. It should not be forgotten that each branch of social physiology is related to a set of social facts, which is nothing but activities of social groups. Emile Durkheim is of opinion that general sociology is the philosophical part of sociology. The function of general sociology is to discover the general character of these social facts. It should discover general, social law of which the different law established by the special social sciences is particular expressions''.

Hobhouse:

Hobhouse an English sociologist holds somewhat a similar view on the scope of sociology. According to him, sociology should be a synthesis of numerous social sciences. It should include other sciences in its scope. In his opinion, all aspects of social life are inter-connected and therefore, the study of one aspect of social life cannot be adequate for an understanding of the entire social fact. Owing to this reason, sociology should study social life as a whole in a very systematic way,

P. Sorokin

P.Sorokin has also expressed his view on the subject-matter of sociology. According to him, sociology should aim at studying the relationship that exists between the different aspects of social phenomena and between the social and non-social phenomenas. It should study the general features of social phenomena as well.

From the foregoing discussions on the scope of sociology, it can be conveniently concluded that the range of this science is very wide. Sociology is regarded as a general science as well as a special science. Like all other sciences, the subject-matter of sociology is society. Each of these sciences, as mentioned already, deals with only one particular aspects of social life. But it is sociology which not only studies social relationships but also studies society in its entirety. It aims at standing all aspects of society. At this stage of its development, it is neither essential nor possible to determine the scope of sociology. As sociology is a developing science, it is not easy to delimit what exactly cannot be studied by sociological method,

Importance of sociology :

Of the various social sciences, sociology seems to be the youngest. It is gradually developing. Still it has remarkable progress. Its uses are recognized widely today. In modern times, there is a growing realization of the importance of the scientific study of social phenomena and the means of promoting what Prof. Giddings calls human adequacy (human welfare).

The study of sociology has a great value especially in modern complex society. Some of the uses of sociology are as follows.

1. Sociology studies society in a scientific way. Before the emergence of sociology, there was no systematic and scientific attempt to study human society with all its complexities. Sociology has made it possible to study society in a scientific manner. This scientific knowledge about human society is needed in order to achieve progress in various fields.

2. Sociology throws more light on the social nature of man. Sociology evolves deep into the social nature of man. It tells us why man is a social animal, why he lives in groups, communities and societies. It examines the relationship between individual and society, the impact of society on man and other matters.

3. Sociology improves our understanding of society and increases the power of social action, capabilities, talents and limitations. It enables him to adjust himself to the environment. Knowledge of society, social groups, social institutions, associations, their functions etc. helps us to lead an effective social life.

4. The study of sociology helps us to know not only our society and man but also others, their motives, aspirations, status, occupations, traditions, customs, institutions, cultures etc. In a huge industrialized society, our experience is comparatively limited. We can hardly have a comprehensive knowledge of our society and rarely have an idea regarding other societies. But we must have some insight into an appreciation of the motives by which others live and the conditions under which they exist. Such an insight we derive from the study of sociology.

5. The contribution of sociology is not less significant in enriching culture. Sociology has given training to us to have rational approach to questions concerning ourselves, our religion, customs, mores, institutions, values, ideologies etc. It has made us to become more objective, rational, critical and dispassionate. The study of societies has made people to become more broad-minded. It has impressed upon its students to overcome there prejudices,-misconceptions, egoistic ambitions, and class and religious, hatreds. It has made our life richer, fuller and meaningful.

6. Another aspect of the practical side of sociology is the study of great social institutions and the relation's of individuals of each one of them. The home and family, the school and education, the state and government, industry and work, religion and morality, marriage and family, law and legislation, property and government etc. are some of the main institutions, through which our society functions. More than that, they condition our life in countless ways. Knowledge of sociology may help to strengthen them to serve man better.

7. Sociology is useful as a teaching subject too. Sociology is a profession in which technical competence brings its own rewards. Sociologists, especially those trained in research procedures, are in increasing demand in business, Government, industry, city planning, race relations, social work, social welfare, supervision, advertising, communications, administration, and many other areas of community life. A few years ago, sociologists could only teach sociology in schools and colleges. But sociology has now become practical enough to be practiced outside of academic halls, areas of application of sociology in schools and colleges. Careers apart from teaching are now possible in sociology, which are coming more international levels.

8. The need for the study of sociology is greater especially in underdeveloped countries. Sociologists have now drawn the attention of economists regarding the social factors that have contributed to the economic backwardness of a few countries. Economists have now realized the importance of sociological knowledge in analyzing the economic affairs of country.

9. The study of society is of paramount importance in solving social problems. The present world is best with several social problems of great magnitude like poverty, beggary, unemployment, prostitution, over population, family disorganization, community disorganization, racial problems, crime, juvenile delinquency, gambling alcoholism, youth unrest, untouchability etc. A careful analysis of these problems is necessary in order to solve them. Sociology provides such an analysis.

10. Sociological knowledge is necessary for understanding and planning of society. Social planning has been made easier by sociology. Sociology is often considered a vehicle of social reform and social reorganization. It plays an important role in the reconstruction of society.

11. Study of society has helped several governments to promote the welfare of the tribal people. Not only the civilized-societies, but even the tribal societies are faced with several socio-economic and anthropologists regarding tribal societies and problems have helped many governments in undertaking various social welfare measures to promote the welfare of the tribal people. Efforts are now being made to treat the tribals on par with the rest of the civilized people.

12. Sociology has drawn our attention to the intrinsic worth and dignity of man. Sociology has been greatly responsible in changing our attitudes towards fellow human beings. It has helped people to become catholic in outlook and broad-minded in spirit. It has made people to become too lenient and patient towards others. It has minimized the mental distance and reduced the gap between different peoples and communities.

13. Sociology is of great practical help in the sense; it keeps us up-to date on modern social situations and developments. Sociology makes us to become more alert towards the changes and developments that take place around us. As a result, we come to know about our changed roles and expectations and responsibilities.

Characteristics of Sociology:

Sociology as a branch of knowledge, has its own unique characteristics, it is different from other sciences in certain respects. An analysis of its internal logical characteristics helps one to understand what kind of science it is. The following are the main characteristics of sociology.

1. Sociology is an independent science:

Sociology has now emerged into an independent science. It is not treated and studied as a branch of any other science like philosophy or political philosophy or history. As an independent science, it has its own field of study, boundary and method.

2. Sociology is a social science and not a physical science:

Sociology belongs to the family of social science and not to the family of physical science. As a social science, it concentrates its attention on man, his social behavior, social activities and social life. As a member of the family of social sciences like history, political science, economics, psychology, anthropology etc. The fact that sociology deals with the social universe distinguishes it from astronomy, physics, chemistry, zoology, mathematics and other physical sciences.

3. Sociology is a categorical and not a normative discipline:

Sociology "confines itself to statements about what is not what should be or ought to be". As science, sociology is necessarily silent about questions of value. It does not make any kind of value judgments. Its approach is neither moral nor immoral but amoral. It is ethically neutral. It cannot decide the directions in which sociology ought to go. It makes no recommendations on matters of social policy or legislation or programme. But it does not mean that sociological knowledge is useless and serves no purpose, it only means that sociology as a discipline cannot deal with problems of good and evil, right and wrong and moral or immoral.

4. Sociology is a pure science and not an applied science:

A distinction is often made between pure sciences and applied sciences. The main aim of pure sciences is the acquisition of knowledge and it is not bothered whether the acquired knowledge is useful or can be put to use. On the other hand, the aim of applied science is to apply the acquired knowledge into life and to put it to use. Each pure science may have its own applied field. For example, physics is a pure science and engineering is its applied field. Similarly, the pure sciences such as economics, political science, history etc. have their applied fields like business, politics, and journalism respectively. Sociology as a pure science has its applied fields such as administration, diplomacy, social work, etc. Each pure science may have more than one application.

Sociology is a pure science, because the immediate aim of sociology is the acquisition of knowledge about human society, not the utilization of that knowledge. Sociologists never determine questions of public policy and do not recommend legislators what laws should be passed or repeated. But the knowledge acquired by a sociologist is of great help to the administrator, the legislator, the diplomat, the teacher, the foreman, the supervisor, the social worker and the citizen. But sociologists themselves do not apply the knowledge of life and use as a matter of their duty and profession.

5. Sociology is relatively an abstract science and not a concrete science:

This does not mean that sociology is an art and not a science. Nor does it mean, it is un-necessarily complicated and unduly difficult. It only means that sociology is not interested in concrete manifestations of human events. It is more concerned with the form of human events and their patterns. For example, sociology is not concerned with particular wars and revolutions but with war and. revolution in general, as social phenomena as type’s social conflict. Similarly, sociology does not confine itself to the study of this society or that particular society or social organization, or marriage or religion, or group and so on. In this simple sense sociology is an abstract and not a concrete science.

6. Sociology is a generalizing and not a particularizing or individualizing science:

Sociology tries to find out the general laws or principles about human interaction and association, about the nature, form, content and structure of human groups and societies. It does not study each and every event that takes place in society. It is not possible also. It tries to make generalizations on the basis of the study of some selected events. For example, a sociologist makes generalizations about the nature of secondary groups. He may conclude that secondary groups are comparatively bigger in size, less stable, not necessarily spatially, limited, more specialized, and so on. This, he does not by examining all the secondary groups but by observing and studying a few.

7. Sociology is a general science and not a special science:

The area of inquiry of sociology is general and not specialized. It is concerned with human interaction and human life in general. Other social sciences like political science, history, economics etc., also study man and human intention on certain aspects of human interaction and activities and specialize themselves, in these fields. Accordingly, economics specializes itself in the study of economic activities. Political science concentrates on political activities and so on. Sociology, of course, does not investigate economic, religious, political, legal, and moral or any other special kinds of phenomena in relation to human life and activities as such. It only studies human activities in a general way. This does not, however, mean that sociology is the basic social science nor does it simply is the general social science. Anthropology and social psychology often claim themselves to be general social sciences.

8. Finally, Sociology is both a rational and an empirical science:

There are two broad ways of approach to scientific knowledge. One known as empiricism is the approach that emphasizes experience and the facts that result from observation and experimentation. The other known as rationalism, reason and the theories that result from logical inference.

The empiricist collects facts, the rationalist co-ordinates and arranges them. Theories and facts are required in the construction of knowledge. In sociological inquiry, both are significant. A theory unsubstantiated by hard facts is nothing more than an opinion. Pacts, by themselves, in their isolated character, are meaningless and useless. As Immanuel Hants said, "theories without facts are empty and facts without theories are blind". All modern sciences, therefore, avail themselves of both empirical and rational resources. Sociology is not an exception. It is clear from the above that sociology is an independent, a social, a categorical, a pure, an abstract, a generalizing both a rational and empirical social science.

Why sociology as science :

Auguste Comte, the father of sociology, called sociology as the "queen of sciences". Some sociologists have come to view sociology in terms of natural sciences.

According to Emile Durkheirn, the business of the sociologists is to establish causal connections and causal law.

Redcliffe-Brown argues that "a theoretical science of human society is possible" and that "there can only be one such science."

Sociology is a science. Before going to elaborate this statement, it is necessary to know what science is Science is a method and way of looking at things consisting of systematic steps like observation, collection, classification, hypothesis, testing, theory and conclusion. Science possesses several characteristics. Firstly, Science employs the scientific method. Secondly, it is the study of facts. Thirdly, scientific principles are universal. Fourthly, scientific laws are veridical. Its validity can be examined at any time. It proves true in every case. Fifthly, science discovers the cause-effect relationship in its subject matter and in this connection provides universal and valid laws. Lastly, science can make predictions on the basis of universal and valid laws relating to, the cause effect relationship in any subject. The foundation of science is based upon a faith in causality.

By examining sociology on the basis of the six essential points, it can be proved that sociology possesses all me characteristics of science. Therefore, Sociology can be regarded as a science.

1. Sociology employs the Scientific method:

All the methods of sociology are scientific. These methods are observation, interview, case study, schedule, questionnaire etc. In these methods, the first step is collection of data through observation. Then the data is classified and finally the results are brought out on the basis of accepted data. The validity of these results are verified.

2. Sociology is factual:

Sociology studies social relationships and activities. Its general problem is description of the social process. In this way, sociology makes a scientific study of facts and the general principles involved in them. Auguste Comte describes it as "Social physics".

3. The Principles of sociology are universal:

The law of sociology proves true at all times and at all places. For example, the principles of family disorganization and social disorganization depend upon each other, is true all times and all places.

4. The Principles of Sociology are veridical:

The law of sociology proves true at every verification and re-verification. Their, validity can he examined by one. For example, one can consider the law that increase in the number of divorces indicates acceleration of family disorganization. This principle can be examined any where by any one.

5. Sociology discovers cause-effect relationships:

On the basis of the above example of divorces and family disorganization, divorce is an effect and family disorganization is one of its causes. Sociology has discovered a cause-effect relation between the phenomena divorce and family disorganization. Similarly, suicide is an effect of the present dowry system in society. Thus Sociology traces cause-effect relationships in social disorganization and other incidents, activities and relationships in society .and then formulates laws concerning them.

6. Sociology can make predictions:

Lastly, on the basis of cause-effect relationships, Sociology can anticipate the future and make predictions concerning social relationships, activities, incidents etc. If disorganization in the families becomes pronounced, it can make predictions concerning the number of divorces and many other things. Knowing the cause-effect relationships, sociology can determine what will be on the basis of what is? Thus, it is evident from the above discussion that sociology is a science. Sociology possesses all the essential characteristics of science.

 41. Define Culture. Brief note on material and non material culture. What are essential roles of culture in society ?

Definition: Culture consists of the beliefs, behaviors, objects, and other characteristics common to the members of a particular group or society. Through culture, people and groups define themselves, conform to society's shared values, and contribute to society. Thus, culture includes many societal aspects: language, customs, values, norms, mores, rules, tools, technologies, products, organizations, and institutions. This latter term institution refers to clusters of rules and cultural meanings associated with specific social activities. Common institutions are the family, education, religion, work, and health care.

Culture is of two types, namely material and non-material.

1. Material Culture

Material culture consists of man-made objects such as tools, implements, furniture, automobiles, buildings, dams, roads, bridges and in fact the physical substance which has not been changed and used by man it is concerned with the external, mechanical and utilitarian objects. It includes technical and material equipments like a printing press, a locomotive, a telephone, television, a tractor, a machine gun etc. It includes our banks, parliaments, insurance, schemes, currency system, etc.

2. Non-Material Culture

The term culture when used in its ordinary sense means non-material culture. It is something internal and intrinsically valuable, reflects the, inward nature of man. Non-material culture consists of the words the people use or the language they speak, the beliefs they hold, values and virtues they cherish, habits they follow, rituals and practices that they do and the currencies they observe. It also includes our customs and tastes, attitudes and outlook, in brief the ways of acting, feeling and thinking.

Essential roles of culture in society.

Man is not only a social animal but also a cultured being. Man's social life has been made possible because of culture. Culture is something that has elevated him from the level of animal to the heights of man. Man cannot survive as man without culture. It represents the entire achievements of mankind. Culture has been fulfilling a number of function among which the following may be noted.

1. Culture is the Treasury of Knowledge

Culture provides knowledge, which is essential for the physical and intellectual existence of man. Birds and animals behave instinctively with environment. But man has greater intelligence and learning capacity. With the help of these, he has been able to adapt himself with environment or modify it to suit his convenience. Culture has made such an adaptation and modification possible and easier by providing man the necessary skills and knowledge. Culture preserves knowledge and helps its transmission from generation to generation through its means that is language helps not only the transmission of knowledge but also its preservation, accumulation and diffusion. On the contrary, animals do not have this advantage. Because culture does not exist at such human level.

2. Culture Defines Situations

Culture defines social situations for us. It not only defines but also conditions and determines what we eat and drink, we wear, when to laugh, weep, sleep, love to like friends with, what work we do, what god we worship, what knowledge we rely upon, what poetry we recite and so on.

3. Culture Defines Attitudes, Values and Goods

Attitudes refer to the tendency to feel and work out in certain ways. Values are the measure of goodness or desirability. Goods refer to the attainments, which our values define as worthy. It is the culture, which conditions our attitude towards various issues such as religion, morality, marriage, science, family planning, positions and so on. Our values concernsing private etc. are influenced by our culture. Our goals of winning the race, understanding others, attaining salvation, being obedient to elders and teachers, being loyal to husband, being patriotic etc. are all set forth by our culture. We are being socialized on these models.

4. Culture Decides Our Career

Whether we should become a politician or a social worker, a doctor, an engineer, a soldier, a farmer, a professor, an industrialist; a religious leader and so on is decided by our culture. What career we are likely to pursue is largely decided by our culture. Culture sets limitations on our choice to select different careers. Individuals may develop, modify or oppose the trends of their culture but they always live within its framework. Only a few can find outlet on the culture.

5. Culture Provides Behavior Pattern

Culture directs and confines the behavior of an individual. Culture assigns goals and provides means for achieving them. It rewards noble works and punishes the ignoble ones. It assigns him status. We see dream, aspire, work, strive to marry, enjoy according to the cultural expectation. Culture not only contains but also liberates human energy and activities; Man indeed is a prisoner of his culture.

6. Culture Provides Personality

Culture exercises a great influence on the development of personality. No child can get human qualities in the absence of a cultural environment. Culture prepares man for group life and provides him the design of living. It is the culture that provides opportunities for the development of personality and sets limits on its growth. As Ruth Benedict has pointed out every culture will provide its special type or types of personality.

7. Culture Makes Man a Human Being

It is culture that makes the human, a man, regulates his conduct and prepares him for group life. It provides to him a complete design for living. It teaches him what type of food he should take and in what mariner, how he should cover himself and behave with his fellows, how he should speak with the people and how he should co-operate or compete with others. An individual abstained from culture is less than human; he is what we call feral, man. The individual to be truly human must participate in cultural stream without it he would have been forced to find his own way, which would mean a loss of energy in satisfying his elementary needs.

8. Culture Provides Solution for Complicated Situation

Secondly, culture provides man with a set of behavior even for complicated situation. It has so thoroughly influenced that often he does not require any external force to keep himself in conformity with the social requirements. His action becomes automatic. Forming queues when there is rush at the booking window or driving left in the busy streets. In the absence of culture, he should have been baffled even at the simplest situations. He need not go through painful trial and error learning to know what food can be taken without poisoning himself and fellow. His culture directs and confines his behavior, limits his goals and measures his reward. His culture gets into his mind and shutters vision so that he sees what is supposed to see in dream what he is expected to dream and hunger for what he is trained to hunger.

9. Culture Provides Traditional Interpretations to Certain Situation.

Through culture men gets traditional interpretation for many situations according to which he determines his behavior. If a cat crosses his way, he postpones his journey. It may however be noted that these traditional interpretation differ from culture to culture. Among some culture owl is regarded as a symbol of wisdom and not a symbol of idiocy.

10. Culture Keeps Social Relationship Intact

Culture has importance not only for man but also for the group. Had there been no culture there would have been no group life. Culture is the design and the prescription for guiding values and ideals. By regulating the behavior of the people and satisfying, the primary drives pertaining to hunger and sex it has been able to maintain group life. Culture has provided a number of checks upon irrational conduct and suggestibility culture aids such as in schooling or scientific training. Lessen the chances that a man will behave irrationally or irresponsibility. The members of group characterized though they be by consciousness of kind, at once competing. They are held in line by constraints prescribed by culture.

11. Culture Broadens the Out Looks of the Individual

Culture has given a new vision to individual by providing him a set of rules for co-operation of the individuals. He thinks not only his own self but also of the others. Culture teaches him to think himself a part of the larger whole, it provides him with the concept of family, state, nation and class and make responsible the co­operation and division of labor.

12. Culture Creates New Needs

Culture also creates new needs and new drives, for example, thirst for knowledge and arranges for the satisfaction.

42.  How culture differs from culture and civilization?

Civilization denotes utilitarian things used as apparatus. To understand the term 'culture' clearly it would be desirable to distinguish it from civilization. Writers have many different concepts of civilization. Civilization is considered to have begun at the time of writing and the advent of metals.

As history begins with writing, so does civilization. Ogburn and Nimkoff conceived of civilization as the latter phase of the super organic culture. Some based civilization on civil organization as contrasted to clan or kinship organization. Since civil organization was found more commonly in large towns, so people living in these towns were called civilized. A.A. Golden Weiser used the word 'civilization' as synonymous to 'culture' and applied the term to non-literate people.

Others reserve the word 'civilization' for some selected part of a culture. Brooks Adam thinks his concept limp lies order maintained over an area by government power. To Arnold Toynbee, a civilization is essentially a religious and ethical system holding away over an area of the larger than a state or nation. Such a system is unified by customs, institutions and ideologies.

Some sociologists divide culture into two parts, the material and non-material. By material is meant one can create objects. Like dwellings pens, radio, articles of clothing, utensils, tools, books and paintings, by non material is meant the abstract creations of man such as language, literature, science, art, law and religion.

The sociologists Jhon Lewis Gillin and Johan 'Phiilip Gillin explited the term 'culture' to designate the ideas and techniques behind the concrete objects and cultural equipment to describe the objects themselves. According to them civilization is a more complex and evolved form of culture. Mac Iver uses the word 'civilization' to denote utilitarian things the whole mechanism and social organism techniques and material instruments which have been devised by man in his Endeavour to control the conditions of his life. These things operate as means to ends. They are wanted because by using them as means we can secure certain satisfactions. Civilization in this sense would include the radio, the ballot box, the telephone, railroads, the schools, the bank and the tractor, etc. All these belong to the realm of civilization.

A.W. Green Golds remarks that "A culture becomes civilization only when it possesses written language, science, philosophy, a specialized division of labour and a complex technology and political system".

Following Mac Iver, the important points of difference between culture and civilization may be described as follows:

1. Civilization has a precise standard of measurement but not culture:

Civilization is susceptible of being quantitatively measured on the grounds of efficiency. When comparing the products of civilization we can prove which, is superior and which is inferior. Their efficiency can be estimated and in fact be measured. A lorry runs faster than a bullock cart, an aeroplane runs faster than a lorry; a power loom produces more plough. The modern currency system is superior to the barter system. None can dispute these facts. On the contrary, there is no measuring rod by which we can assess own standards, the paintings of Picasso may appear to some an abomination while to others they are invaluable models of art. To some Bernard Shaw is a better dramatist than Shakespeare. Some like songs, others prefer film songs.

2. Civilization is always advancing, but not culture:

According to Mac Iver, Civilization not only marches, it marches always, provided there is no catastrophic break of social continuity in the same direction. Civilization shows a persistent upward trend. It is unlinear and cumulative and tends to advance indefinitely.

Since man invented automobile, it has continuously improved. Similar is the case with other means of transportation like railway, ship, aeroplane which are constantly growing more swift, more efficient and better designed. They are vastly superior to those employed by our ancestors. Culture on the other hand, advances slowly and is often subject to progression. It does not march assuredly to higher or improved standards: Our paintings are not as good as or better than those of Ajanta caves. Can we say that our poetry, drama and literature are superior to those of ancient times?

3. Civilization is passed on without effort, but not culture.

Culture is transmitted on a different principle from that of civilization. The former can only be assimilated by the like minded. It can be had only those who are worthy of it. No one without the quality of the artist can appreciate art, nor classical music can be judged, by those who do not have an ear for it.

Civilization in general makes no such demand we can enjoy its products without sharing the capacity, which creates them. Every one can use the breeze from a ceiling fan whether he knows the mechanism of the fan or not. A.J. Toynbee writes, ''It is the easiest thing in the world for commerce to export a new Western technique. It is infinitely harder for a western poet or saint to kindle in a non-Western soul the spiritual flame that is a light in-his own.

4. The works of civilization can be improved by anybody but that is not possible in the case of culture.

Lesser minds can improve the work of the great inventors, but lesser artists instead of improving may rather spoil the poems of Milton or Tagore. The accomplishments of culture can be perfected only by the persons who produced them. Again, the product of the artist is more revelatory of his personality than is that of the technician. Culture, being the immediate expression of the human spirit, can advance only if that spirit is capable of finer efforts, has itself something more to express.

5. Civilization is external and mechanical while culture is internal and organic.

Civilization is inclusive of external things, culture is related to internal thoughts, feelings, ideals, values etc. Mac Iver remarks ''Civilization is what we have culture is what we are", in Mathew Arnold's words, culture, is the study of perfection and of harmonies perfection general, rather than in having something, in an inward condition of the mind and spirit, not in an outward set of circuit areas."

6. Civilization is borrowed without change or loss, but not culture.

The transference, of civilization from one generation to another is quick and easy. Given adequate means of communication things of civilization quickly spread to the whole world. Radio, television, X-ray, automobiles are no longer the monopoly of any one country. The corporate from of industry has encroached everywhere in older forms. The factory has displaced the domestic system of production. Even the savage is ready to give up bow and spear and two adopt the gun, The new techniques of constructing buildings and building roads, have everywhere been adopted.

Culture, on the other hand has an intrinsic quality and can only be imbibed. It will have a limited appeal. In India, we have borrowed much Western civilization "borrowings" but they are only a few aspects of culture, which are borrowed and even in this act of borrowing, borrowed culture are clear that expansion of a civilization follows different principle from those, which determine cultural development. Civilization proceeds more rapidly, more simply, less selectively always spreading outward from the face of technological advance.

43.  Complete information on family, its characteristics and features.

Family is the important social institution of society. The word 'Family' has been taken over from Latin word 'Famulus' which means the servant. Thus originally family consisted of a man and woman with a child or children and servants.

According to Burgess and Locke, "Family is a group of persons united by ties of marriage, blood, or adoption, constituting a single household, interacting and inter-communicating with each other in their respective social roles of husband and wife, father and mother, son and daughter, brother and sister, and creating a common culture."

General characteristics of family:

(1) A mating relationship

A family comes into existence when a man and woman establish mating relation between them.

(2) Selection of mates

Wife or husband may be selected by parents or by the elders or the choice may be left to the wishes of the individual concerns. Various rules govern this selection.

(3) A form of marriage

A mating relationship is established through the institution of marriage. Marriage is an institutional arrangement made by society according to which the individuals establish marital relationships among themselves. Marriage may assume any one of the forms - monogamy, polygyny, polyandry or group marriage.

(4) A system of nomenclature

Every family is known or recognized by a distinctive name.

(5) A way of tracing the descent

Every family has its own mode of tracing the descent. Descent refers to the social recognition of biological relationship between individuals. Descent may be traced through the male line or through the female line or through the both lines.

(6) A common residence

Family requires a home or a household to live in. After the marriage the wife may reside in husband's parental home or she may stay in her parental home to which the husband pays occasional visits or both of them may establish a separate home of their own.

(7) An economic provision-

Family provides for the satisfaction of the economic needs of its members.

Distinctive features of the family:

The family, unlike other institutions, enjoys a unique position in society. Its distinctive features may be noted here.

(1) Universality

Family is a universal social institution. There is no human society in which some form of the family does not appear nor has there ever been such a society.

(2) Emotional basis

The family is grounded in emotions and sentiments. It is based on our impulses of mating, procreation, maternal devotion, fraternal love and paternal care. It is built upon sentiments of love, affection, sympathy, co-operation and friendship.

(3) Limited size

The family is smaller in size. As a primary group its size is necessarily limited. It seems to be the smallest social unit. The biological conditions have also contributed to its small size.

(4) Formative influence

The family is the earliest social environment which surrounds trains and educates the child. It shapes the personality and moulds the character of its members. It emotionally conditions the child. It is the 'nursery of human nature' and the breeding ground of our mores and the nurse of our loyalties.

(5) Nuclear position in the social structure

The family is the nucleus of all other social organizations. The whole social structure is built of family units. It influences the whole life of society.

(6) Responsibility of the members

The member of the family has certain responsibilities, duties and obligations. The smooth running of family depends on how best the members discharge their responsibilities in co-ordination with the other individuals of the family. As Maclver points out, "In times of crisis men may work and fight and die for their country, but they toil for their families all their lives."

(7) Social regulation

The family is peculiarly guarded both by social taboos and by legal regulations. The society takes precaution of safeguard this organization from any possible breakdown, by divorce, desertion or separation.

(8) The permanent and temporary nature of the family

The family as an institution is permanent. Since it is based on the organic and emotional nature of man, it continues to exist. But family as an association may be temporary in character. These characteristics indeed reveal the sociological significance of the family.

44.  What are types of family and its types? Essential functions performed by family.

Family is a social institution organised to meet certain essential societal needs. It is a group consisting of parents, with or without children and relatives, united by bonds of love and affection and sharing common social activities.

According to Maclver and Page, "Family is a group defined by sex relationship sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children."

According to K. Davis, "Family is a group of persons whose relations to one another are based upon consanguinity and who are therefore kin to one another."

In the view of Elliot," Family is the biological social unit composed of husband, wife and children."

Types of Family:

Sociologists have taken different factors as the basis for the classification of family.

1. On the basis of marriage:

On the basis of marriage, family has been classified into three major types:

(a) Monogamous family:

A monogamous family is composed of one man and one woman. In this type of family a man cannot marry more than one wife at a time. It is regarded as an ideal form of family. It minimises emotional and psychological conflict.

(b) Polygynous family:

In this type of family one man marries more than one woman at a time and lives with them in the same house. In this type of family various arrangements are made to adjust the need of many wives.

(c) Polyandrous family:

Polyandrous family is composed of one woman and many men. In this type of family one woman marries many men and lives with them and she is shared by them by turns. The Pandava family is the example of polyandrous family.

2. On the basis of residence:

On the basis of residence family can be classified into following three type:

(a) Patrilocal family:

In this type of family after marriage, the wife goes and lives in the family of her husband. Her husband occupies a central position and plays a dominant role.

(b) Matrilocal family:

In the matrilocal family after marriage the husband goes and lives in the family of his wife. It is also known as a wife dominated family.

(c) Bilocal:

In some societies the couple have a choice. They may live with the parents of either the groom or the bride. This is known as bilocal residence.

3. On the basis of ancestry or descent:

By which an individual's blood relatives are determined is known as the rules of descent or ancestry. On the basis of ancestry or descent family can be classified into two:

(a) Patrilineal family:

In this type of family the ancestry is determined on the basis of male line or the father. In other words, the family where the father is the centre of authority is considered as the patrilineal family, regarded as the best type of family.

(b) Matrilineal family:

In this type of family mother is the centre of authority. The rights and privileges are handed down by mother to her daughter.

4. On the basis of authority:

On the basis of authority family is classified into two:

(a) The patriarchal family:

Patriarchal family or a joint family is directly ruled by the eldest married male member or the father. In this family father is regarded as the head or authority and possesses all powers. The children are known by the name of their father. This type of family was found among the Romans and Aryans of India.

(b) Matriarchal family:

In this type of family the authority rests with the female head. The mother is the owner of property and rules over the family. The female members alone have the right to succeed to property in a matriarchal family.

5. On the basis of size:

On the basis of size, family is classified into two types-:

(a) Nuclear family:

The size of nuclear family is very small. It consists of father, mother and their unmarried children. It is regarded as the ideal form of family.

(b) Joint family:

The size of joint family is very large. It is formed by large number of members. Joint family is composed of father, mother, their sons, the son's wife, and so on. The members of joint family belong to several generations. In this family the eldest male member is the head of family.

Essential functions performed by family.

The family, almost without question, is the most important one of any of the groups that human experience offers. We join other groups for long or short period of time for the satisfaction of some interests. But the family is always with us or rather we are with it.

Really, family is a unique social institution for which there is no substitute. It is the most permanent and most pervasive of all social institutions. The word 'family' has come from Latin word 'famulus' which means the servant. The family is a small group consisting of father, mother, one or more children and some relatives.

Maclver defined family as "a group defined by sex relationship sufficiently precise, and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children.”

Eliot says" Family is the biological social unit composed of husband, wife and children."

Nimkoff says "Family is a more or less durable association of husband and wife with or without child, or of a man or woman alone, with children."

Functions of the Family:

Family is the most important primary group in society. It is an outstanding primary group, because the child develops its basic attitudes in the family. Family, as a social institution performs several functions.

Maclver classifies its functions into two types:

(1) Essential or primary and (2) non-essential or secondary.

The essential functions of family are:

(1) Satisfaction of sex need:

Vatsayana, the author of Kamasutra, has stated that sexual satisfaction is one of the main aims of family life. Satisfaction of sex desire is the most essential function which the family performs. The satisfaction of sex desire requires that the male and female should live together so that their sex instinct can be easily and comfortably satisfied.

(2) Reproduction:

The result of satisfaction of sex need is reproduction, which is an essential function of family. It is the desire of every man and woman to have his or her own children. The desire is satisfied in the family.

(3) Production and care of children:

The family gives individual a life and a chance to survive. The child at his birth is completely helpless and cannot survive without the help of family. Family not only takes care of the newly born babies, it also takes care of the unborn babies. Family also protects child from various types of diseases.

(4) Provision of a home:

Family provides the home for its members. Children are born and brought up in homes only. Though often children are born in hospitals, they are nursed in the homes only. Even the parents who work outside are dependent on home lor comfort, protection and peace.

The non-essential functions of family are:

(1) Economic function:

The family fulfils the economic needs of its members. This has been traditional function of family. Family fulfils all the economic needs of its members such as food, clothing, shelter etc. The goods required by its members are produced at home.

(2) Educational function:

Mazzin says, "The first lesson of child is learnt between mother's kiss and father's care". Family is regarded as the first school of children. The family provides the basis for the child's formal learning and gives the child his basic training in the social attitudes and habits.

(3) Religious function:

The family is a centre for the religious training of the children. The family used to teach the children the religious values, moral precepts etc. It is through the family the religious inheritance is passed on to the next generation.

(4) Recreational functions:

Family is the centre of recreation. It serves as a centre of all recreational activities like singing, dancing, playing indoor games etc. The small children are the source of recreation for the elders.

(5) Protective function:

Family always looks after the health of its members both young and old. It takes up the responsibility of its members and maintains sound and good health.

45.          What is importance of law of three stages by  August Comte’ ?

According to Comte, each branch of our knowledge passes successively through the different theoretical conditions. It is known as law of three stages. The main aim of this principle is that it provides the basis of sociological thinking.

The three stages are:

1. Theological or fictitious stage:

According to Comte in this stage, "all theoretical conceptions, whether general or special bear a supernatural impress". Unable to discover the natural causes of the various happenings, the primitive men attributed them to imaginary or divine forces. This stage is also divided into three sub-stages as (a) Fetishism (b) Polytheism (c) Monotheism.

(a) Fetishism -During this sub-stage, man accepts the existence of the spirit or the soul. It did not admit priesthood.

(b) Polytheism - During this sub-stage, man begins to believe in magic and allied activities. He then transplants or imposes special god in every object. Thus they believed in several gods and created the class of priests to get the goodwill and the blessings of these gods.

(c) Monotheism - During this sub-stage of the theological stage man believes that there is only one centre of power which guides and controls all the activities of the world. Thus man believed in the superhuman power of only one god.

2. Metaphysical or abstract stage:

This stage being an improvement upon the earlier stage, it was believed that the abstract power or force guides and determines the events in the world. Metaphysical thinking discards belief in concrete god.

3. Scientific or positive stage:

The observation and classification of facts are the beginning of the scientific stage, where there is no place for any belief or superstition. Everything concludes rationally.

Positivism:

Positivism means the philosophical system of Auguste Comte, recognising only positive facts in observable phenomena, and rejecting metaphysics and theism and religious system founded on this. Thus, Comte was against all types of irrational elements in social thinking. Comte argued, "As long as man believes that social events are always exposed to disturbances by the accidental intervention of the legislators no human or divine no scientific provisions of them would be possible".

Comte not only developed the concept of three stages in the development of human intellect but also observed three stages in the development of society or social organization.

                                                                                                THE END